
Class _Jl5^L^ 
Boole ■ b 



CDEXRIGHT DEPOSIT 



SYLLABUS OF 



THE BACKGROUND 

AND ISSUES 

OF THE WORLD WAR 



By 
NORMAN MACLAREN TRENHOLME 

Professor of History and of the Teaching of History, 

University of Missouri; 

Director of War Aims Course, S. A. T. C. 



THE MISSOURI BOOK CO. 

Columbia, Missouri 



if 



SYLLABUS OF 

THE BACKGROUND AND ISSUES OP THE 

WORLD WAR 



SYLLABUS OF 

THE BACKGROUND AND ISSUES 

OF THE 

WORLD WAR 



BY 
NORMAN MACLAREN TRENHOLME 

Professor of History and of the Teaching of History, 

Director of War Aims course, 8. A. T. C. 

University of Missouri. 



THE MISSOURI BOOK COMPANY 

COLUMBIA, MISSOURI. 
1918. 



3»Y 



Copyright 1918 
The Missouri Book Co. 



OCT 2! I9!8 



Press of 
E. W. Stephens Publishing Co., 

Columbia, Mo., © Qj. A 5 3 9 J 



/ 



OS" 



PREFACE. 

This Syllabus was prepared for the use of the 
Instructors and students in the War Aims or Issues of 
the War course in connection with the Student Army 
Training Corps work at the University of Missouri. 

Being prepared very hastily, the syllabus has, of 
course, some defects. The author assumes responsibility 
for all these. He wishes also to acknowledge his constant 
indebtedness to the text-books and outlines of recent 
European History and especially to the works by C. H. 
Hayes, C. D. Hazen, L. H. Holt and A. W. Chilton, and 
J. S. Schapiro. From all these he has borrowed freely 
for topic outlines and details. 

Much help has also been rendered by the author's 
colleagues who have done a great deal to make the 
Syllabus of more value to teachers and students. 
Mr. H. G. Brown of the Economics Department prepared 
sections II and III; Mr. Jonas Viles and Mr. F. F. 
Stephens of the History Department sections XXIII, 
XXIV; and Mr. J. E. Wrench of the History Depart- 
ment sections XIII, XXI, and XXII. Valuable assistance 
was rendered also by the members of the History Depart- 
ment in the preparation of the Reading References and 
of the Study Problems. 

Norman M. Teenholme 
September 30, 1918. 



(5) 



CONTENTS 



Useful References— Text Books and Special Works of 

Importance. 
Introductory: Purpose and Character of the Course. 

PART I. 

Geographical, Racial, and Economic Setting of the World 

War. 

I. Geography, Races, and Agricultural and Mineral Re- 
sources of Europe. 

II. Transportation Systems and Policies of the Chief Bel- 
ligerents. 

III. Trade Relations and Policies of the Chief Belliger- 

ents. 

PART II. 
Historical Background to the World War. 

IV. Modern European Development to the French Revolu- 

tion. Old Europe. 
V. The French Revolution and Democracy, 1789-1799. 
VI. Napoleonic Popular Imperialism and its Influence, 1799- 

1815. 
VII. The Conflict of Reaction and Liberalism, 1815-1850. 
VIII. Nationalism and Democracy in Europe During the 
Later Nineteenth Century. 
IX. Origin of the Prussian State and of the German Em- 
pire. 
X. The Development of Popular Government in Great 
Britain and the Evolution of the British Empire. 
XL Colonial Expansion and National Imperialism. 
XII. The New France after 1870 and its Republican and 
Democratic Development. 

XIII. The Development of Nationalities in the Near East. 

The Balkan States. 

XIV. International Relations and Diplomacy. The Great 

Alliances and the Armed Peace, 1871-1905. 
XV. The Conflict of Alliances and the Great Diplomatic 
Crises, 1905-1914. 

(7) 



PART III. 

The World War and its Issues. War Aims. 

XVI. The Causes, Character and Progress of the World War. 
XVII. German War Aims and the Issues of the War in Re- 
gard to Germany. 
XVIII. War Aims and Issues in Regard to Belgium and France. 
XIX. The Kingdom of Italy and The Issues of the War. 
XX. Issues of the War in Regard to Austria-Hungary and 

the Czecho-Slovaks and Jugo-Slavs. 
XXL Russia and the Slavic Issues of the War. 
XXII. Issues of the War in Regard to Turkey and her Em- 
pire. 

XXIII. How America Came into the War. 

XXIV. The Meaning of the War to America. 

XXV. War Aims, Peace Proposals and the General Issues 

of the World War. 
Appendix A. War Aims and Peace Terms of President 

Wilson. 
Appendix B. War Aims and Peace Terms of Prime 

Minister Lloyd George. 



(8) 



SYLLABUS OF 

THE BACKGROUND AND ISSUES 

OF THE 

WORLD WAR 

Useful References. 

A. Text Books on Recent European History and Government. 
C. H. Hayes, The Political and Social History of "Europe, 2 vols. 

This work emphasizes the developmental aspects of Europ- 
ean nationalism and democracy, and lays special stress 
on economic and social problems. Vol. II, 1815-1915, is 
especially valuable for this course. 

C. E. M. Hawkesworth, Last Century in Europe. Chiefly in- 
ternational relations. 

C. D. Hazen, Europe Since 1815. An interesting survey of 
political and diplomatic history with emphasis on great 
movements and great leaders up to 1910. 

, Modern European History, 1789-1917. An abridge- 
ment of the above work with additional subject matter 
at the beginning and end. A useful popular manual. 

L. H. Holt and A. W. Chilton, History of Europe, 1862-191 ' h 
Political, military and diplomatic survey of the last 
half century centering around German national imper- 
ialism and militarism. A valuable reference book. 

F. A. Ogg, The Governments of Europe. The best one-volume 
account of the character of the leading European gov- 
ernments. 

, Economic Development of Modern Europe. 

Valuable. 

J. S. Schapiro, Modern and Contemporary European History. 
Carries the history of recent Europe to 1918 in a topi- 
cal way, emphasizing political, economic and cultural 
forces and movements in thirty chapters. Valuable for 
its comprehensive and up-to-date information. 

Ch. Seignobos, Europe Since 1814, trans, by S. M. Macvane. 
The standard French text on recent European history- 
A little out of date now but still valuable for the period 
up to 1890. 

B. Special Works of Importance. 

(9) 



Committee on Public Information, Washington, D. C. Pub- 
lications in the Red-White-and-Blue Series and War In* 
formation Series. Over thirty books and pamphlets. 
Students should have ready access to all of these pub- 
lications and particularly to No. 7 (Red-White-and-Blue), 
The War Cyclopedia; No. 5, Conquest and Kultur; and 
No. 116, The Study of the Great War. The President's 
announcement of American war aims will be found in 
No. 9, War Labor and Peace, of which a large number 
of copies should be secured. Most of these publica- 
tions are furnished without cost while for others a 
small charge is made. Every library should have a 
complete file. 

J. M. Beck, The Evidence in the Case. 

A. Bullard, The Diplomacy of the Great War. 

W. S. Davis, Roots of the War. 

W. M. Fullerton, Problems of Power. 

O. P. Chitwood, Immediate Causes of the Great War. 

J. W. Gerard, My Four Years in Germany. 

Yves Guyot, Causes and Consequences of the War, trans, by 
F. A. Holt. 

A. B. Hart, Editor, America at War, (Outlines and refer- 
ences). 

S. S. McClure, Obstacles to Peace. 

H. H. Powers, The Things Men Fight For. 

, America Among the Nations. 

J. H. Rose, Development of the European Nations, 2 vols. 

, The Origins of the War, J871-1914. 

J. G. Seymour, Diplomatic Background to the War. 

E. C. Stowell, The Diplomacy of the War of 191Jf. 

Andre Tardieu, France and the Alliances. 

Roland Usher, Pan Germanism. 

C. Maps and Charts. 

U. S. Government, Strategic Map of Central Europe. To be 
obtained from Supt. of Documents, Govt. Printing Of- 
fice, Washington, D. C. (30c) 

Denoyer-Geppert, European History Maps. A large and up- 
to-date collection of historical maps and charts, Denoyer- 
Geppert Co., Chicago. 

W. & A. K. Johnston, Maps for European History. A service- 
able set of history maps and charts for modern times 
at reasonable cost. A. J. Nystrom Co., Chicago. 

Wall maps of Europe of today of any kind or a large out- 
line map of Europe, which can be filled in, can be used 
to advantage. Some sort of map is essential to the 
course. The maps in the text-books and reference books 
should be studied and referred to constantly. 



(10) 



INTRODUCTORY— PURPOSE AND CHARACTER OF 
THE COURSE. 

(1) Purpose: to give students "an understanding 
of what the war is about and of the supreme importance 
to civilization of the cause for which we are fighting." 

(2) Character: to deal with "the remote and 
immediate causes of the war" and with "the underlying 
conflict of points of view as expressed in the govern- 
ments, philosophies, and literatures of the various states 
on both sides of the struggle." 

(3) This course will be given by means of 
lectures and quiz sections. Opportunities for questions 
and discussions will be arranged. Students must have 
a text book and a Syllabus. An effort will be made to 
provide reference and reading material in connection 
with the lectures and study problems. 



PART I. 

GEOGRAPHICAL, RACIAL AND ECONOMIC 
. SETTING OF THE WORLD WAR. 

I. Geography, Races and Agricultural and Mineral 
Resources of Europe. 

(Use as large a map as possible). 

(1) Geographical characteristics of Europe. Smallest 
of the continents. Peninsular in type. An extension 
of Asia, making Eurasia. Southern peninsulas of 
Greece, Italy, and Spain. Great central plain of 
France, Germany, Austria, and Russia. Northern 
peninsular-insular region of British Isles. Peninsulas 
of Denmark and Scandinavia. 

(2) Great mountain ranges dividing Europe — Pyrenees, 
Vosges, Alps, Carpathian, and Balkan. Important 
rivers of War Europe — Seine, Rhone, Marne, Aisne, 
Meuse, Moselle, Rhine, Danube, Vistula, Po, and 
Piave. 

(ID 



(3) Climate of Europe varies greatly. In general in 
western and central Europe it is moderate with 
considerable rainfall. Influenced greatly by warm 
winds and currents from the western and southern 
Atlantic. Southern Europe much milder in climate 
on account of the Mediterranean basin and warm 
breezes from Africa. 

(4) The surface conditions of Europe of the west show 
centuries of civilization. Densely populated and well 
cultivated in pre-war times. Little wild country 
except in mountainous regions or those parts now 
devastated by war. 

(5) The significance of the physical geography of 
Europe. Many natural divisions making for sepa- 
ration of peoples into linguistic and cultural units. 
Consequent growth and development of nationalities. 
Sixty different languages at least and about as many 
large and small nations or peoples in Europe to-day. 
Political imperialism in Europe a defiance of 
geographical and historical influences. 

(6) The racial question in regard to Europe a difficult 
and complicated one. Europeans chiefly of the 
Caucasian race with its three divisions of Mediter- 
ranean, Teutonic, and Alpine. This classification 
scientific and biological. The long headed or 
dolichocephalic type, includes both the Mediter- 
ranean and Teutonic races, and the round headed 
or brachycephalic type, which is the Alpine race. 
Other possible types less important. Frequent 
mingling of races in ancient times has practically 
destroyed scientific race classification in Europe of 
to-day. 

(7) Other race classifications of less scientific sort. 
Linguistic and political races known frequently as 
nations or peoples. The Aryan classification, based 
on language, of Greeks, Italians, Celts, Germans and 
Slavs. Nationalism in modern times independent of 
race purity. A matter of common traditions, 
customs and institutions which people are used to, 
believe in and respect. 

(12) 



(8) The national idea in relation to geography. Im- 
portance of national-geographical unity. War, 
conquest and annexation harmful to national 
geographical unity and freedom. Examples of the 
failure of national boundaries to correspond with 
national feelings and sentiments numerous in Europe 
and ought, as far as possible, to be corrected. 

1. The German empire in political control of 

a French population living in Alsace 
Lorraine. These districts taken from France 
in 1871 although the inhabitants declared 
themselves French in sympathy and de- 
sired to remain a part of France. They wish 
to belong to the French national state, 
speak French and live as Frenchmen not 
Germans. 

2. The Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary 
holds in more or less unwilling subjection 
many races and nationalities such as the 
Czecho-Slovaks of Bohemia and Moravia, 
the Rumanians of Transylvania, the 
Ruthenians and Poles of Galicia, the 
Serbo-Croats, Bosnians and Herzegovinians 
of Croatia-Slavonia, and the Italians of the 
Adriatic. Slavic and Latin nationalism 
under Teutonic and Magyar dominance 
of military dynastic type. 

3. The Poles, a submerged nation, have no 
national boundaries or territory of their 
own but have been held in unwilling 
subjection by Germany, Russia and Austria 
for over one hundred years. 

4. Nationalism and geography are not well 
adjusted as yet in the Balkan regions owing 
to conflicting claims and viewpoints among 
the Balkan nations. Turkey still dominates 
considerable European territory not in- 
habited by people of Turkish nationality. 

(9) The political and military geography of Europe 
and the agricultural and mineral resources, popu- 

(13) 



lation and military strength of the more important 
countries engaged in the World War. 

1. Great Britain and Ireland, population of 
45 millions in small area. Mixture of races 
and languages has resulted in English 
language and British nation. Agriculture, 
grazing, and fishing extensively pursued 
but food production inadequate to large 
population. Valuable mineral resources of 
coal, iron and tin an important economic 
asset. Necessity of importing large amounts 
of food stuffs and raw material for the 
industrial life of the islands. Military 
strength, with British dominions, 5 millions. 

2. Belgium a little country but densely popu- 

lated before the war, with 8 millions of 
people. Extensive agricultural interests 
also great mineral wealth of coal and iron 
and much manufacturing and commerce. 
Germany has occupied 96 per cent of 
Belgium since 1914. Military strength 
300,000. 

3. France is the fourth largest European state, 

about the size of Missouri, Kansas and 
Iowa combined. Population of 40 millions. 
Valuable agricultural resources and con- 
siderable live stock before the war also 
important coal fields but lacking in iron 
supply on account of the loss of Alsace 
Lorraine, a great iron district containing 
more iron ore than all the rest of Prance put 
together. Extensive, manufacturing interests 
of all sorts and large export trade in 
times of peace. Military strength 6 mil- 
lions. 

4. Germany the third largest European state 
with a population of 68 millions. A 
federation of 26 states under Prussian 
dominance. Little sea coast. Important 
agricultural and mineral resources. Rye 

(14) 



the chief grain but also wheat, barley and 
oats, and other products. Large mineral 
wealth of coal, iron, lead, copper, silver 
and zinc. Extensive salt mines. Large 
manufacturing interests and tremendous 
pre-war shipping and commerce. One of 
the most self-sufficing of European coun- 
tries in resources and ingenious in invent- 
ing substitutes of all sorts. Military 
strength at least 8 millions. 

5. Austria-Hungary, the second largest 
European country, with a population of 50 
millions. Very valuable and extensive 
agricultural interests especially in the 
Danube valley where wheat and other 
grains are grown on a large . scale. Vast 
amount of largely undeveloped mineral 
wealth in the mountainous region and in 
Bohemia. Much less manufacturing and 
foreign commerce than in the case of 
Germany, Great Britain or France. Few 
outlets for commerce, and wealth comes 
principally from land. Military strength 
3 millions. 

6. Italy, the smallest of the major powers in 
area and population, with 34 millions of 
people. Agriculture the principal industry 
of the peninsula and is especially success- 
ful in the north on account of the fertile 
plain of the Po valley. Rice, wheat and 
corn raised in abundance in peace times. 
A great fruit country and large production 
of wine. Malarial fever very common and 
a serious hindrance to Italian prosperity. 
Little coal or iron in the peninsula but 
iron mines on the island of Elba. Consider- 
able manufacturing being developed. 
Military strength 3 millions. 

7. Eussia is the largest of European states be- 
ing as large as all the rest of Europe. Russian 

(15) 



empire in Europe and Asia makes up one- 
sixth of the land surface of the world. 
Population of millions in Russia in Europe. 
The numerous nations and tribes and some 
40 languages and dialects. Extensive and 
valuable agricultural wealth as soil is 
fertile in many regions particularly north 
of the Black Sea so that Russia is a great 
farming country. Raises enormous wheat 
crops under normal conditions; also rye, 
barley and oats. Extensive lumbering 
interests, valuable forests. Much grazing 
and various kinds of live stock. Great 
undeveloped mineral wealth in coal, iron, 
copper, platinum, gold, silver and pre- 
cious stones in remote parts of Russia. 
The country a vast region of potential 
wealth. Has been held back by lack of 
enlightenment and civilization. Great 
need of scientific exploitation and of 
better outlets for its products. Military 
strength formerly more than 8 millions. 
(10) Summary and conclusions: Europe a continent 
marked by its diversity of geographical divisions 
and nationalities. Nationalism not well adjusted 
territorially in all cases. Its economic development 
uneven and hampered by artificial restrictions of 
all sorts. Great Britain, France and Germany the 
most developed of the larger countries economic- 
ally. 

Study and Reading References. 

Enclycopedia Brittanica, articles on "Europe" and on various 
countries discussed in the lecture and outline. 

Neiv International Encyclopedia, same articles as referred 
to above, late national statistics in the New Interna- 
tional Year Books. 

Ogg, Economic Development of Modern Europe, ch. 1. 

Ripley, The Races of Europe, chapters on the races men- 
tioned. 

Tarr and McMurray, Advanced Geography, section on "Eu- 
rope." 

(16) 



Study Problems. 

(1) Explain how the physical geographical conditions 
of Europe affected her political development and 
the character of her populations. 

(2) Give reasons for the temperate climate of western 
Europe and describe some other climatic character- 
istics and variations from north to south. 

(3) Comment on the surface conditions of Europe com- 
paring or contrasting them with those in America. 
What parts of Europe would seem to you most 
likely to resemble America as regards surface 
characteristics. 

(4) What important political problem is suggested to 
you by the failure of national boundaries to corres- 
pond with national feeling? How would you 
illustrate this? 

(5) Write a descriptive and explanatory essay con- 
cerning anyone of the important European coun- 
tries discussed in a lecture or outline, noting 
its size, population, natural resources, economic 
interests and military strength and telling how it 
has been affected by the war. 

II. Transportation Systems and Policy of the Chief 
Belligerents. 

(1) Importance of the transportation systems of the 
chief countries — (a) as avenues of modern com- 
merce; (b) as means of moving troops and troop 
supplies. 

(2) The transportation system of Great Britain. 

1. Rail transportation. Railroads first built 
in England. High degree of development. 
Operated and owned by private companies 
up to time of war. Government regulation 
of rates. Rates high compared to United 
States but service regularly includes de- 
livery of goods as by Express compaines 
in this country. 
(17) 



2. Inland water transportation. Thames 
Eiver, Manchester ship canal, many 
smaller streams and canals. Most canals 
built by toll companies many years ago. 
Canals had history of great prosperity. 
Made obsolete by railroads and now little 
used. 

3. Ocean transportation. Foreign or oceanic 
trade of United Kingdom has long ex- 
ceeded that of any other country. British 
merchant marine the chief ocean carrier 
of the world. Merchant ships encouraged 
by mail and other subsidies granted for 
service, speed and right to use in case of 
war. 

(3) The transportation system of Germany. 

1. Rail transportation. Lines first constructed 
by private companies but gradually taken 
over by states under Bismarck's policy of 
state operation. Certain evils of private 
operation — discrimination between shippers 
— thus ended. Other evils introduced — not 
allowed to compete with waterways when 
able to serve more cheaply. 

2. Railroad rates higher than in the United 
States. Roadbeds lighter and cars smaller. 
Government of Prussia uses railroads as 
source of revenue. This dependence of 
government on railroad finance said by one 
writer (H. R. Meyer) to have pervented 
expenditures bringing lines up to date. 
State operation probably due in part to 
desire for immediate and rapid military 
control. Location of lines favorable for 
military control. 

3. Inland water transportation. Use of water 
ways has declined relatively since the 
beginning of railway era. Efforts of state 
to revive waterway transportation be- 
ginning in the seventies. Large sums spent 
(18) 



for building canals, improving rivers and 
for maintenance. Cost of water transport- 
ation often lower for shipper than by rail. 
This does not mean cheaper for the nation 
as a whole. Taxpayers meet much of cost 
for waterways by taxation. 
4. Use of waterways encouraged by govern- 
ment by purposely maintaining 'high rail 
rates and by the state's paying four-fifths 
of cost of transhipping from rail to water 
and back. "German efficiency" here means 
doing thoroughly the wrong thing. 
5. Ocean transportation. Germany had come 
to have the second largest ocean carrying 
trade. Yet she had paid only small sub- 
sidies while France and Austria had paid 
large ones. 

(4) Transportation system of France. 

1. Rail transportation. Lines laid out by 
government engineers with a view to per- 
manence and avoidance of waste. Costs 
met by state and companies jointly. Di- 
vided into six systems of which, before 
the war, private companies operated all 
but one under a state guarantee of 
earnings. The government operated the 
other. 

2. Inland water transportation. Systems of 
canals and river traffic developed and 
maintained by government. Cost main- 
tenance apparently exceeds gain. 

3. Ocean transportation. Subsidized ships. 
Trade and shipping much less than Ger- 
many. 

(5) Italy, Austria, and Russia. Rail transportation. 
Lines operated by state in each case. Inland water 
transportation in these countries less developed than 
in Germany or France. Ocean transportation 
relatively unimportant although all had some access 
to sea and Italy an extensive coast line. 

(19) 



(6) Transportation system of the United States. 

1. Rail transportation. Very great mileage. 
Low freight rates but high passenger 
rates. , Operation by private companies 
up to time of war. 

2. Inland water transportation. Large use of 
natural water ways. Small development 
of canals. Wasteful public expenditure on 
little used rivers. 

3. Ocean transportation. Relative decline of 
American merchant marine simultaneous 
with large growth of American foreign 
trade. 

(7) Summary and conclusions: German states' control 
of rail lines due largely to military reasons. British 
have developed large merchant marine and kept 
sea control. Germany and France have followed 
uneconomic policy with inland waterways. The 
United States has followed no consistent policy. 

Study and Reading Refeeences. 

Hayes, Political and Social History, II, index under Railways 
etc. 

Ogg, Economic Development of Modern Europe, chs. xi. 

Schapiro, Modern and Contemporary History, see index un- 
der Railways and Steam navigation, 

Study Problems. 

(1) How are the railroads owned and operated in Eng- 
land? What is their relation to the government? 
Comment on the development of the British mer- 
chant marine and explain its importance in the 
War. 

(2) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of state 
operation of railroads in Germany. How far did 
military considerations determine their location? 
What advantage have they proved in this war? 

(3) What has been the German policy as to water- 
ways? Has it been to the advantage of German 
taxpayers? Discuss the influence of the develop- 

(20) 



ment of the German merchant marine on the causes 
of the war. 

(4) What curious inconsistences occur in the German 
system of government supported waterways? 

(5) Explain how the railroads of France were built 
and operated? Discuss the importance and value 
of inland water transportation and ocean traffic to 
France. 

(6) What were the chief defects of the railroads and 
inland water transportation in the United States 
as revealed by the war? Why did the American 
merchant marine decline while American foreign 
trade increased? 

III. Trade Relations and Policies of the Chief 
Belligerents. 

(1) Relative volume of exports and imports before the 
war. 

1. Germany was third in trade, being exceeded 

by the United Kingdom and the United 
States, while France was a poor fourth. 
In export of manufactured goods Germany 
stood secon^d preceeded by the United 
Kingdom and followed by the United 
States and France. 

2. Germany exported so many goods to Eng- 

land that the expression "Made in Ger- 
many" became a considerable source of 
disturbance to Englishmen who wanted 
to preserve their home market for them- 
selves. German banks developed foreign 
trade and financial relations second only 
to the British. German ships plowed all 
the seas. 

(2) Rival trade policies of Great Britain and the Ger- 
man Empire. 

1. British policy and results. Free trade. 
Bought goods where cheapest and sold 
(21) 



them everywhere. Prices lower than on 
continent yet wages higher. Foreign coun- 
tries whose goods were bought purchased 
British goods in return thus employing 
British labor. 

2. The United Kingdom, the greatest exporting 

country in the world because a great im- 
porting country. Reliance on foreign food 
stuffs made possible large population, great 
wealth and support of the most powerful 
navy to protect trade. 

3. German policy. Protectionist — high tariff 
intended to restrict imports. Protection 
first adopted to foster and protect manu- 
facturing. More recently the emphasis has 
been placed on protection of agriculture. 
Protection made greater by high railroad 
rates on imported goods going to interior. 

4. German effort to encourage exports by 
making a specially low rate on goods for 
export. Cartels, or syndicate combinations 
of firms in the same trade, sold at high 
prices in Germany protected by tariff, and 
sold at low prices abroad thus increasing 
export. 

(3) Discussion of these trade policies. 

1. Economic aspects of German policy. Tar- 
iff policy cannot raise wages for it could 
only do this for any workman by enabling 
their employer to charge higher prices. 
But these higher prices would come out of 
other workmen who bought the goods. 

2. Tariff policy of Germany makes no better 
employment, for men can only be employed 
making goods to sell abroad if foreign 
goods are accepted as payment. Although 
Germany both imported and exported in 
spite of tariff restrictions, these restric- 

(22) 



tions may largely explain 1 lie smaller Ger- 
man trade than British. 

3. Protection to agriculture raised prices of 
food to 70,000,000 Germans to enable 300,- 
000 landlords, largely Prussian Junkers, to 
get more rent for their land. This policy 
made production less efficient by encourag- 
ing lines of industry for which the country 
was not best fitted. 

4. Discrimination in favor of exports, if con- 
tinuous, amounted to gifts by Germans 
who paid the high prices at home, to for- 
eign buyers who could then buy the Ger- 
man goods cheaply. 

(4) Protectionism as a policy of a militaristic state. 

1. So as not to be dependent on foreign 
countries — claimed to be advantageous in 
wartime. On other hand England's de- 
pendence makes her rich and strong enough 
to have large navy to defend her trade. 
Independence is of no advantage to the 
weak. But it may make a people more 
willing to break with other countries. 

2. Independence of Germany makes people 
contribute to the support, by higher rents, 
of aristocratic military leaders. Policy of 
independence entirely inconsistent with a 
large export trade, and, in fact, Germany's 
large export of manufactured goods made 
her dependent on others for part of food 
supply. Hence the blockade, though not 
wholly effective, has caused scarcity. 

(5) War not a necessary means of securing to Germany 
commercial opportunity, for 

1. Though Russia, Italy, France . and many 
other countries restricted imports by high 
tariffs, this was no greater disadvantage 

(23) 



to Germany than to Great Britain of the 
United States. 

2. Though Canada and Australia discrimin- 
ated somewhat in favor of British goods, 
they did not, as might have been expected 
of integral parts of the empire, carry this, 
discrimination to the point of admitting 
British goods free. The British policy for 
India has been one of free trade with equal 
opportunity for all countries. 

3. Despite alarmists, the United Kingdom 
persisted in free trade and gave Germany 
much of the British home market while 
producing itself goods for export. 

4. The Open Door policy for China and the 
policies of South American countries meant 
as large opportunities for Germany as for 
any other country. 

5. A liberal tariff reduction by the United 
States, in 1913, gave promise of additional 
opportunities for Germany. 

6. Germany's trade was great and growing. 
Her own policy of restricting imports 

probably the chief reason her export trade 
did not grow faster. Control of large slices 
of France, Russia and other countries could 
not be expected to increase German trade 
unless barriers were removed. 

7. Belgium had practically free trade thus 
giving German goods every reasonable 
chance. 

8. German barriers are as great a hindrance 
as any to German trade but it is doubtful 
whether German protected interests would 

consent to the removal of these barriers 
on the German side. 

(6) Summary and conclusion. Germany possessed large 
and growing trade. She had protectionist policy. 
Great Britain's even larger trade with free trade 
(24) 



policy despite smaller population. Economic loss 
to Germany from protection. Tendency of mili- 
tary state to be protectionist. Efforts, of Germany 
to restrict imports while simultaneously increasing 
exports not possible of success. Resort to war 
not necessary to give Germany reasonable trade 
opportunities. 

Study and Reading References. 

Hayes, Political and Social History, II, see index under Tar- 
iff, Commerce, etc. 

Ogg, Economic Development of Modern Europe, chs. ix-xv. 

Schapiro, Modern and Contemporary History, see index un- 
der Protection, etc. 

Study Problems. 

(1) What was Germany's position as to exports and 
imports before the war? How was her commercial 
expansion regarded by Great Britain? 

(2) Comment on the character of British trade policy 
and contrast it with that of Germany. How do you 
explain the growth of British prosperity under 
Free Trade conditions? 

(3) What were the objects of Germany's protectionist 
trade policy? Whom did it benefit most? 

(4) Discuss the economic aspects of German tariff pol- 
icy in regard to wages, trade, agriculture. 

(5) Why is extreme protectionism likely to be the 
policy of a militaristic state? Does militarism 
cause protectionism or might protectionism cause 
militarism? Debate this question. 

(6) Why was war not necessary to secure for Ger- 
many better commercial opportunities? Explain 
your answer fully and give proofs. 



(25) 



PART II. 

• » 

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND TO THE' WORLD 
WAR. 

IV. Modern European Development to the French 
Revolution. Old Europe. 

(1) Historical and political terminology and its im- 
portance in understanding the relations of the 
past and present. Changing manifestations and 
illustrations of the same institutional idea through 
the centuries. Meaning of important political and 
institutional terms such as absolutism, aristocracy, 
autocracy, centralization, decentralization, democ- 
racy, feudalism, hegemony, imperialism, interna- 
tionalism, nationalism, national-imperialism, reac- 
tion, tribalism, and other terms. 

(2) Importance of understanding the foundations of 
modern Europe at the present time. The present 
war in no small part the result of forces and in- 
fluences of the past. The politics and civilization of 
Europe and America today largely an evolution 
from the past, with the exception of new inventions 
and scientific ideas of recent origin. Need of 
selecting and studying only the most vital and 
important aspects of the past which have operated 
on the present. 

(3) Europe has had three stages of development, 
namely, ancient, mediaeval, and modern. The earlier 
stages marked by the prevalence of two forces 
in politics and government, namely, imperialism 
and tribalism. The Roman Empire stood for im- 
perialism, the Celtic and Germanic world for tri- 
balism. Later on a third force appeared in the 
form of a universal religion, namely, Christianity. 
Mediaeval and modern civilization and politics 
largely a result of the working out and blending of 
imperial, tribal and Christian forces. 

(26) 



(4) The Roman Empire in Europe marked by the 
spirit of institutional unity which found expres- 
sion in a number of great bonds of union making 
for uniformity of government and civilization. 
Absence of any definite nationalism within the 
empire but the presence of tribal nationalism among 
the Celts and Germans. Roman contribution to 
later European development along several lines. 

1. Social and economic contribution : aris- 
tocracy, serfdom and slavery with no 
middle class of importance. Landlord and 
villa system, making for existence of landed 
aristocracy and peasant class. Prevalence 
of slavery. Heavy taxation and decline of 
population. Importance of this contribu- 
tion for later times. 

2. Governmental contribution: combination 
of the two ideas of the city state and the 
world empire. The Roman Empire made up 
of municipalities grouped into provinces. 
The idea of military imperialism handed 
on" to later times together with the idea 
of provincial and municipal organization. 
Weakness of the Roman Empire not so 
much in its institutions as in its rulers 
and economic life. Perpetuation of Roman 
imperial tradition in the Catholic Church 
and the Holy Roman Empire. 

3. Cultural and intellectual contribution : the 
Graeco-Roman culture and philosophy of 
the Roman Empire handed on in part to 
later times. The Latin language in those 
parts of western Europe controlled by 
Rome. Pagan culture overshadowed by 
Christianity until the later middle ages 
when it revived during the so-called 
Renaissance. Influence of Roman legal 
culture and ideas on mediaeval and modern 
times. Importance of Graeco-Roman archi- 

(27) 



tecture and sculpture in keeping up the 
artistic tradition in Europe. 

(5) The Middle Ages a period of reaction, against 
paganism and exaltation of religion, religious war, 
and asceticism in connection with religious and 
social ideals. Manifestations of mediaeval influence 
on later times. 

1. Social and economic influence of the media- 
eval period seen in the development of 
agriculture along manorial or dependent 
lines. The decline of serfdom. Hired labor- 
ers and free tenants. Decline and revival 
of commerce and industry. Towns and 
gilds. Strict regulation of economic activi- 
ties of mercantilist type. 

3. Governmental contribution of the middle 
ages along lines of tribal national king- 
doms, Frankish and Holy Koman Ger- 
manic imperialism, and dynastic national- 
ism. Feudalism and its political and gov- 
ernmental significance as an influence on 
modern times. Growth of centralized 
political institutions and of cities as a 
part of the dynastic and middle class 
national movement. 

4. Religious contribution of the middle ages 
in the form of the universal or Catholic 
idea with its elaborate organization, rigid 
faith, and extensive missionary enterprises. 
Conflict of ecclesiastical imperialism with 
the imperial and national states. Survival 
in considerable part of mediaeval religious 
ideas and organization deprived of their 
political influence and importance. 

5. Cultural and intellectual influence of the 
middle ages found in the heritage from 
Christian and Mohammedan mediaeval cul- 
ture. Christian theology, law, medicine 
and philosophy through the universities. 

(28) 



Mediaeval art and literature. Mohammedan 
influence along lines of Greek philosophy, 
medicine, sciences and art, operating 
through Mediterranean contact at various 
points. 

(4) The early modern age a period of beginnings 
along lines of stronger nationalism, individualism, 
humanism, rationalism, and constitutionalism. Its 
characteristics and contributions to the later mod- 
ern period. 

1. Social and economic contributions of the 
early modern period seen in (a) the ex- 
pansion of Europe through discovery, col- 
onization and trade extension; (b) com- 
mercial revolution through growth of world 
commerce and greater manufacturing 
which calls for new economic development. 
Important heritage of European colonial 
empires in America, Africa, and Asia with 
consequent rivalries and wars in the 17th 
and 18th centuries. 

2. Political and governmental influence of the 
early modern period seen in (a) rapid 
decline of feudalism in society and gov- 
ernment; (b) growth of national conscious- 
ness with spirit of patriotism based on 
common language and literature. Manifes- 
tations of these changes in the national 
history of England, France, and Spain in 
particular. Spirit of rivalry in connection 
with dynastic nationalism and national im- 
perialism. Spain and France. 

3. Religious influence of the early modern 
period seen in connection with the nation- 
alizing of religion by the Protestant Revolt 
which establishes state churches. The 
Catholic Reformation important as an effort 
to bring the old religion into harmony with 
changed political and governmental con- 

(29) 



ditions. The Jesuits and the Council of 
Trent. Aristocracy of religion in most 
countries. 
4. The intellectual and cultural contributions 
of the early modern period group under 
the so-called Renaissance between 1350 and 
the 18th century. Humanism in Italy and 
north of the Alps. Development of the 
fine arts and of national literatures. , Scien- 
tific advances of theoretical and practical 
character. Important heritage along all 
lines of national culture. 
(5) Various important movements of the mediaeval and 
modern ages which have a bearing on later and 
present conditions and issues. Survey of these in 
order to provide general historical background. 

1. The development of a constitutional gov- 
ernment in England. The Magna Charta 
(1215) and the evolution of a representa- 
tive parliament with definite powers in 
taxation, legislation and control of ad- 
ministration. The reaction from aristo- 
cratic parliamentary government to popular 
absolutism in the 15th and 16th centuries. 
Setback to Stuart divine right absolutism 
by the Puritan Revolution and assertion 
of parliamentary power in the 17th cen- 
tury. The revolution of 1688 and the Bill 
of Rights established the supremacy of 
parliament and led to the origin of the 
cabinet and prime minister. Parliament 
corrupt and unreformed and easily con- 
trolled by ministers. 

2. Changes in Germany in the later middle 
ages and early modern period along 
lines of extreme decentralization and divi- 
sion. Emergence of various powerful dynas- 
tic states such as those of the Hapsburgs 
of Austria, the Hohenzollerns of Branden- 
burg and Prussia, the "Wittelsbachs of 

(30) 



Bavaria and others of less importance. 
Triumph of particularism and difficulty of 
bringing about unity by peaceful agreement 
between the Germanies. 

3. Dynastic and international rivalries of 
later mediaeval and early modern ages. 
The Hundred Years' War based on Plan- 
tagenet and Valois dynastic competition 
for power. The Hapsburg and Valois 
struggles of the later 15th and early 16th 
centuries. The Thirty Years' War as a 
dynastic and international conflict involv- 
ing Hapsburgs, Hohenzollerns, Bourbons 
and the Bohemian, Danish, Swedish, and 
French nations. Peace of Westphalia 
(1648) marks an anti-Hapsburg sentiment 
in Germany, gains for France and Sweden, 
secularization of politics and growth of 
international law and diplomacy. 

4. The national imperialism of the French 
monarchy under Louis XIV and his suc- 
cessors and their conflict with continental 
Europe and England. French desires for 
aggrandizement under Louis XIV threaten 
to upset the balance of power. Consequent 
wars culminate in the great European 
struggle of the Spanish Succession (1702- 
1713). The Peace of Utrecht (1713) and 
the reconstruction of Europe along dynastic 
national lines. Colonial gains by England 
soon followed by a world conflict for colo- 
nial ascendancy in America and India be- 
tween Great Britain and France. The 
significance of the 18th century wars and 
of the Treaty of Paris (1763). 

5. The rise of Russia and the decline of 
Swedish, Polish and Turkish national and 
imperial power. Foundations of the Rus- 
sian Empire in the middle ages. The 
Tartar domination and the gradual eman- 
(31) 



cipation of the princes of Moscow. Orien- 
talism of early modern Russia. Russia 
under Peter the Great (1689-1725) and his 
victory over Sweden. Catherine the Great 
(1762-1796) and the partitions of Poland 
between Russia, Prussia, and Austria. Gains 
of Russia at the expense of Turkey in the 
region of the Black Sea and Danube. 

6. Disruption of the earlier British colonial 
empire in the 18th century. Restrictions 
on colonial trade and manufacture and 
difficulties of financing colonial wars. Ef- 
forts to raise revenue from the American 
colonies and colonial resistance to imperial 
control. The American revolution and the 
establishment of the federal republic of tho 
United States with a liberal but rigid sys- 
tem of government. 

7. European society on the eve of the French 
Revolution. General lack of indication of 
further progress along social, economic, 
cultural, or political lines. Need of a stimu- 
lus through political and social revolution 
by which more popular and enlightened 
ideas could find application. The effort 
of enlightened despots to bring about ad- 
vances only partially successful. General 
existence of privileged classes in all coun- 
tries and of political and religious aristoc- 
racy and conservatism. 

(6) Summary and conclusions: The history of Europe 
to the French Revolution shows developments in- 
fluenced by Roman imperialism, Christianity, and 
Teutonic tribal nationalism. Rebuilding of civiliza- 
tion during middle ages and early modern period 
along old and new lines but in general dominated 
by survivals of aristocratic and dynastic social and 
political ascendancy and control. Europe ready 
for new ideas of democratic and liberal national 
type. 

(32) 



Study and Reading References. 

Adams, European History. A brief general survey. 
Hayes, Political and Social History of Modern Europe, I. 
Hoskins, Preliminaries of the World Conflict, A, I-II. 
Lavisse, General View of the Political History of Europe, 

trans, by Ch. Gross. Good brief survey. 
Robinson, Introduction to the History of Western Europe. 
West, Modern History. 
Bryce, The Holy Roman Empire. 
Cheyney, Short History of England. 
Green, Short Histo?~y of the English People. 
Henderson, Short History of Germany. 
Schevill, Political History of Modern Europe. 

Study Problems. 

(1) Define the terms mentioned in the outline with his- 
torical illustrations from the earlier or later history 
of Europe. 

(2) "What important elements entered into mediaeval 
civilization and determined much of its develop- 
ment? Did these influence the modern age and if 
so how? 

(3) Describe briefly the contributions of (a) The 
Eoman Empire; (b) The Middle Ages; (c) The 
Early Modern Age. 

(4) Giye an account of the more important movements 
of political and governmental character that took 
place in Europe prior to the French revolution. 

(5) What general and special ideas of the character 
and importance of earlier European development 
have you obtained from the study of this topic? 

V. The French Revolution and Democracy, 1789-1799. 

(1) What the French Revolution was and why it is 
important. The Divine Right of Kings and aris- 
tocratic feudal society. The Rights of Man and 

• Liberty, Equality and Fraternity. 

(2) How the French Revolution developed. 

1. The Estates General (1789) becomes the 
National Assembly. Destruction of the 
Bastille (July 14, 1789), French National 
(33) 



Holiday like our Fourth of July. Over- 
throw of divine right monarchy and old 
aristocratic regime by democratic reformers 
(1791). Other reform work of the Nation- 
al Assembly. 

2. Dissatisfaction of both reactionaries and 
radicals with limited or constitutional mon- 
archy. The moderate and extreme reform 
parties cannot agree. Weakness of the 
new Legislative Assembly due to previous 
inexperience. 

3. Foreign intervention by German and Aus- 
trian states in behalf of the restoration 
of absolute monarchy causes republican rev- 
olution. The flight, capture and later 
execution of Louis XVI. The effect of 
this on republican and democratic senti- 
ment. 

4. The first French Republic, (1792-1804). 
The National Convention and its work be- 
tween 1792 and 1795: (a) victory over 
foreign invaders; (b) construction of re- 
publican form of government based on 
principles of democracy. Strong central 
organization and policy of terrorism ad-' 
ministered by twelve men forming the 
Committee of Public Safety. 

5. The Reign of Terror and the reasons for 
it: (a) to get rid of conservative and 
moderate leaders; (b) to intimidate the 
ignorant masses and make them obedient to 
the radical leaders. The guillotine and its 
victims. Quarrels between factions and 
individuals such as Girondists, Jacobins, 
Marat, Danton, Robespierre (1794). Paris 
mob violence curbed by military organiza- 
tion, first appearance of Napoleon Bona- 
parte at Paris (October 1795). 

6. The Directory (1795-1799) and the trans- 
formation of the First Republic into a mili- 

(34) 



tary dictatorship. End of the revolution- 
ary and beginning of the Napoleonic period. 
The French Revolution becomes merged in 
the personality of Napoleon Bonaparte. 

(3) Significance of the French Revolution. Its watch- 
words of Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity. 

1. Liberty implied political ideals. Popular 
government, personal liberty of conscience, 
worship, speech, press, and property. 

2. Equality implied social and economic ideals. 
Abolition of privileges, serfdom, ranks and 
titles, "all men born free and equal." 
Equal chance and opportunity. 

3. Fraternity implied spiritual, emotional 
ideals of brotherhood and friendship. In 
France applied to national spirit of all 
citizens who were to be brothers in liberty 
and in arms. Stimulated patriotism of 
free democratic type. 

(4) Summary: "Political liberty, social equality, patri- 
otism in the nation — these three' have been the 
enduring watchwords of all those who down to 
our own day have looked for inspiration to the 
French Revolution." 

Study and Reading References. 

Hayes, Political and Social History, I, ch. xv. 
Hazen, Modern European History, chs. i-vii 
Schapiro, Modern and Contemporary History, 1-13. 
Belloc, French Revolution (Home University Library). 
Johnston, The French Revolution. 
Mathews, The French Revolution. 



Study Problems. 

(1) What was wrong with 18th century government 
and society in Europe? Describe and illustrate. 

(2) How did the French Revolution try to remedy 
conditions in France and how far did it succeed 
in doing so? 

(35) 



(3) "Why did the French Revolution become so violent 
and what were the special objects and aims of 
this violence? 

(4) How is the French Revolution connected with 
ideas of democracy and nationalism through its 
great watchwords? 

(5) Was the French Revolution as a whole a good or 
bad event? Give reasons for your answer. 

(6) Compare the character and course of the French 
Revolution with what you know or can learn of 
the Russian Revolution of today, noticing points 
of similarity. 

VI. Napoleonic Popular Imperialism and its Influences, 

1799-1815. 

(1) Importance of Napoleon Bonaparte. A recent 
writer says: "From 1799 to 1814' the history of 
Europe was the history of France and the history 
of France was the biography of Napoleon Bona- 
parte/ ' 

(2) The career and policies of Napoleon Bonaparte 
(1769-1821). 

1. His birth, education and character. Cor- 
sican nationalism of his youth. His mili- 
tary and political career to 1799. 

2. The Consulate (1799-1804). Its foreign 
and domestic policies and problems. Bona- 
parte becomes military and political chief. 
Temporary peace and administrative and 
legal reforms. 

3. The First Empire (1804-1815). Its in- 
auguration and character. Popular sover- 
eignty in one man. Political and social 
reaction. Decline of French democracy 
and liberalism. 

4. Military and territorial ambitions of Na- 
poleon as Emperor. His campaigns in 
Europe against Austria, Prussia, Russia, 
Spain. Political, economic and social issues 

(36) 



of the Napoleonic wars. The constant op- 
position of Great Britain to Napoleonic 
imperialism. 

5. Reasons for Napoleon's collapse in 1814; 
(a) weakened resources owing to almost 
continuous war and the disastrous Rus- 
sian campaign of 1812; (b) stronger and 
more determined national opposition under 
able leaders and generals; (c) Napoleon's 
own decline in determination and personal 
effort, due to the strain of one man power. 

6. Napoleon's abdication in 1814 and his 
residence on Elba. The return to France 
and the reaction of the Hundred Days. 
The battle of Waterloo and its importance. 
Napoleon as an exile on St. Helena be- 
tween 1815 and 1821. The Napoleonic 
Legend. 

(3) Significance of the era of Napoleon for Europe. 
The spread of French ideas of political and social 
revolution. Historical and popular estimates of 
Napoleon. 

1. Napoleonic era a continuation of the revolu- 
tionary period. Marked by new popular 
and aggressive spirit of advance. 

2. Liberty, political and governmental, suf- 
fered some restrictions under Napoleon 
who ruled somewhat despotically. Rights 

of Man not well upheld and personal 
liberty often violated. Extensive system 
of espionage and secret police. 

3. Equality in a social sense generally upheld. 
Progressive social viewpoints in the Na- 
poleonic Empire. Many valuable and per- 
manent social and economic gains. 

4. Fraternity in the sense of brotherhood of 
men of same race and traditions strongly 
developed. Napoleon helped to create a na- 
tional sentiment in Germany, Italy and 

(37) 



Spain by his policies of constructive and 
destructive character. 

5. Nationalistic resentment against French 
national-imperialism. European people 
ready to accept social values of the French 
Revolution but resent and reject French 
political domination as they desire national 
freedom and self-determination. 

6. The real or historic Napoleon very different 
from the Napoleon of legend, stories and 
popular imagination. French national ad- 
miration and love for Napoleon a part of 
their culture. 

(4) Summary: Napoleon by seeking to make Europe 
a French national imperial state did two things: (a) 
Spread the French Revolutionary doctrine of Lib- 
erty, Equality and Fraternity by his armies; and 
(b) Aroused the European sense of nationalism in 
liberalized form against dynastic monarchy and 
foreign imperial domination. 

Study and Reading References. 

Hayes, Political and Social History, I, ch. xvi. 
Hazen, Modern European History, chs. viii-xi. 
Schapiro, Modern and Contemporary History, 13-16. 
Fisher, Napoleon, (Home University Library). 
Fournier, Napoleon, 2 vols. Trans, by A. E. Adams. 
Johnston, Napoleon, A Short Biography. 
Rose, Life of Napoleon, 2 vols, in one. 

Study Problems. 

(1) How did Napoleon Bonaparte's origin and educa- 
tion fit him for his later career? Was he a real 
Frenchman? 

(2) In what ways did Napoleon show exceptional 
ability apd qualities of leadership? 

(3) In what ways did Napoleon show lack of wisdom 
and seemingly act wrongly? 

(4) "Would you say that on the whole Napoleon V 
influence on France and on Europe had been good 

(38) 



or bad? Give illustrations and contrast the real 
and legendary Napoleon. 

VII. The Conflict of Reaction and Liberalism, 1815- 

1850. 

(1) The Congress of Vienna (1814-1815) and the re- 
construction of Europe along dynastic lines. Doc- 
trines of legitimacy, compensation, and intervention 
adopted and put in practice by Austria, Prussia, 
and Russia. 

(2) The settlements made in 1815 disregarded both 
nationalism and democracy or liberalism. They 
were arbitrary and dynastic in character and did 
not settle the issues of the war in a satisfactory 
manner. Principal matters settled by the Congress. 

1. Bourbon Restoration in France which lasted 
for fifteen years (1815-1830). Expulsion 
through popular revolution of the reac- 
tionary king, Charles X, in 1830. 

2. Bourbon Restorations in Spain and in 
Naples under reactionary auspices. These 
unenlightened despots maintained dynastic 
power by foreign intervention regardless 
of liberal nationalism. 

3. Belgium given over to Holland as com- 
pensation for Dutch colonies kept by Great 
Britain. Non-national and arbitrary char- 
acter of Belgian-Dutch union. Its abroga- 
tion in 1830 through national liberal rev- 
olution. The great powers forced to guar- 
antee the neutrality of Belgium through 
British insistence. 

4. Austria given northern Italy and control 
over central Italy as compensation for the 
loss of Belgium. This crime against Italian 
nationalism not yet fully remedied. 

5. Germany, a collection of small states, pre- 
vented from becoming a national liberal 
state by Austrian jealousy. It is organized 

(39) 



as a loose confederation of principalities 
under Austria and Prussia. 

6. Norway taken from Denmark and given to 
Sweden as compensation for turning against 
Napoleon. Disregard of Danish-Norwegian 
nationalism. This unpopular union not 
remedied until nearly a century (1905). 

7. Little beneficial or constructive work ac- 
complished at Vienna on account of re- 
actionary character of the peace delegates 
who were all princes or aristocratic poli- 
ticians. The dominant figure was Prince 
Metternich, Chancellor of the Emperor of 
Austria. 

8. Effort to maintain reactionary settlement 
and policies by the formation of alliances 
such as the Quadruple Alliance and the 
Holy Alliance. Also by arranging to hold 
frequent congresses of rulers and their 
representatives to maintain the status quo. 

(3) Continuance of reactionary dynastic ideas in poli- 
tics, government and society in central and eastern 
Europe. Opposition to and persecution of liberal 
national movements and ideas by means of inter- 
vention, espionage and arbitrary police methods. 
Examples of intervention and repression in the 
cases of Spain, Naples, Piedmont, Poland, and the 
German states. Paternalism and close supervision 
in government. 

(4) Forces and movements making for liberalism and 
more democratic nationalism, 1815-1850. 

1. Great Britain, though as yet aristocratic 
in politics and society, was out of sympathy 
with reactionary opposition to nationalism 
and representative government. This at- 
titude due to her desire for freedom in 
trade and her tradition of constitutional 
liberty. She does not support the Quad- 
ruple or Holy Alliances. Protests inter- 
vention. Approves the Monroe Doctrine. 
(40) 



2. France as a liberal nation resents the Bour- 
bon royalist reaction. Constitutional lib- 
eral monarchists, republicans and radicals 
unite to secure a more liberal and demo- 
cratic government. Establishment in 1830 
of the middle class or bourgeois monarchy 
of Louis Philippe. 

3. United States as a colonial national demo- 
cratic state defies dynastic Europe to in- 
terfere with colonial national independence 
in North or South America or to seek to 
acquire new territory in any way. Great 
Britain, under George Canning, supports 
this Monroe Doctrine which becomes a 
national policy of the United States. 

4. Greece emerges successfully as a nation 
from under the yoke of Turkey in spite 
of Metternich and the reactionaries (1820- 
1829). Belgium, already spoken of, is 
another example of successful liberal na- 
tionalism. 

5. The great industrial revolution based on 
new inventions of machinery and on factory 
conditions of industry develops a more 
intelligent middle class and proletariat who 
become important factors in democracy and 
liberal nationalism. 

6. The revolutions and attempted revolutions 
between 1815 and 1848 show that many 
of the peoples of Europe are ambitious to 
secure democracy in government. Austrian 
and German suppression of revolution 
marks these states as dynastic and reac- 
tionary. 

(5) Summary and conclusions: the revolutionary 
tendencies in early nineteenth century Europe due 
to a number of different desires. 

1. Desire for liberty along political and gov- 
ernmental' lines. Shown in repeated de- 
(41) 



mand for constitutions on the part of op- 
pressed peoples. The Spanish constitution 
of 1812 and its importance. 

2. Desire for more equality along social and 
economic lines. Agitation against aristoc- 
racy in society and capitalism in industry. 

3. Desire for fraternity along liberal national 
lines. Agitation for national union and 
freedom from dynastic tyranny. 

Study and Reading References. 

Hayes, Political and Social History, II, chs. xvii-xix. 
Hazen, Modern European History, chs. xii-xvi. 

, Europe Since 1815, chs. i-vii. 

Schapiro, Modern and Contemporary History, chs. ii-vii. 
Seignobos, Europe Since 18U, 1-8, 103-132, 326-386. 
Andrews, Historical Development of Modern Europe, I, 86-179, 

and chs. v-vi. 
Cunningham, Western Civilization, Modern Times, bk. VI, 

chs. i-ii. 
Hawkesworth, Last Century in Europe, chs. i-xiii. 

Study Problems. 

(1) How do you explain the attitude towards a peace 
settlement taken at Vienna. Was there an oppor- 
tunity to settle matters differently? 

(2) How does the map of Europe as fixed in 1815 differ 
in various ways from the map today. How might 
the map of today be improved upon? 

(3) Explain England's attitude towards reaction and 
intervention. "Why was it important, especially 
from the point of view of the United States? 

(4) What conditions and ideas of today had their 
origin in the period between 1815 and 1850 and 
why do they persist so long? 

VIII. Nationalism and Democracy in Europe During 
The Later Nineteenth Century. 

(1) Nationalism and Democracy the dominant political 
ideas of the nineteenth century. How they may 
mean various things. 

(42) 



1. Definition of nationalism. Emotional, un- 
enlightened nationalism, militant patriot- 
ism, race hatred, jealousy and cruelty to- 
wards other peoples. Intensive character 
of European nationalism. Desire for na- 
tional revenge and for spoils of war. 

2. Democratic liberal nationalism. National 
representative government on popular basis. 
Fair, friendly and tolerant attitude towards 
other nations. Desire for international 
peace and friendship. Slow to make war 
but resolute in carrying through to a vic- 
tory over selfish, brutal nationalism or 
national imperialism. 

3. Discrimination to be exercised in regard 
to so-called rights of nationalism. Danger 
of doctrine of absolute national independ- 
ence. Reactionary selfish, quarrelsome na- 
tionalism needs chastisement and correct- 
ion. 

4. Democracy and how it may be variously 
defined. Political Democracy the most 
common form. Social Democracy largely 
an ideal. Economic Democracy thus far 
an agitation. Civilization in relation to 
democracy. 

(2) How Europe was influenced by nationalism and de- 
mocracy during the later 19th century. 

1. The national political unification of Ger- 
many between 1850 and 1870. Bismarck the 
Prussian and his brutal "blood and iron" 
doctrine. The three Hohenzollern dynastic 
wars and their results. Emergence in 1871 
of the present German Empire or "Father- 
land" which has become a type of selfish, 
debased, illiberal, and brutal nationalism. 
Elimination or subjection of all anti-Prus- 
sian elements. 



(43) 



2. The effect of Bismarckian and Hohen- 
zollern military and dynastic ideas on Ger- 
man national character. Strong belief in 
and loyalty to the dynastic state, imperial 
and princely rulers, officials and generals, 
as sacred and supreme. Surrender of in- 
dividual conscience and liberty to ideas 
of national greatness, superiority and pros- 
perity through war ("war pays"). 

3. Dynastic tyranny and selfish nationalism 
combined in the dual monarchy of Austria- 
Hungary. Subjection of Czecho-Slovak, 
Roumanian and Jugo-Slav nationalism to 
Hapsburg power. Italian speaking popula- 
tion in northern Adriatic also under Aus- 
trian domination. "Weakness of Austria- 
Hungary compared with Germany due to 
lack of cohesion and inferior ability of 
leaders. 

4. Russia an example of undeveloped national- 
ism under dynastic autocracy during the 
19th century. The uneducated proletariat 
aud subservient bourgeoisie lorded over 
by Czar, church and nobility. Fanatical 
and radical revolution almost inevitable. 
Time needed for readjustment and re- 
construction. 

5. The Turkish Empire in the later 19th 
century. Its failure to achieve liberal 
democratic nationalism due to corruption 
of the official class and German militarist 
control. Racial and religious brutalities 
of the Turks. The Armenian massacres. 
Position of Turkey before the war. 

6. The Balkan nations of Bulgaria, Roumania, 
Serbia, Montenegro and Greece. The long 
struggle towards nationalism and partial 
democracy. Obstacles to the achievement 
of political democracy. Selfish and brutal 
character of Bulgarian nationalism and the 
(44) 



pro-German policies of Czar Ferdinand 
and his supporters. 

7. Great Britain and the British Empire il- 
lustrate democratic nationalism. The 
growth of responsible government through 
political reform (reform of Parliament, lib- 
eral franchise, restriction on House of 
Lords). Political power in the hands of 
the people. The dynastic king a figure- 
head. Liberal democratic system of colonial 
nationalism. 

8. France in later 19th century becomes a 
liberal democratic nation. The passing of 
popular militant nationalism after the 
reign of Napoleon III with its numerous 
wars and final catastrophe. The emergence 
of the Third French Republic in the seven- 
ties and the gaining of political power by 
republican leaders. 

9. Italy and her national political unification. 
The great Italian liberals — Mazzini, Cavour, 
and Garibaldi. Victor Emmanuel I as a 
constitutional king. National unity of Italy 
on a basis of centralization and representa- 
tion is compared with the Prussian domin- 
ance in German unification. 

10. Belgium, the Netherlands, Denmark, Nor- 
way, Sweden, Switzerland and Spain as- 
examples of partial or complete attain- 
ment of liberal nationalism and democratic 
government. The importance of upholding 
the rights of small nations to determine 
their government and control their desti- 
nies. Germany's defiance of this idea. 

(3) Summary and Conclusion: The later 19th century 
witnessed the development of good and bad types 
of ideals of nationalism. It also witnessed the 
growth of real democracy in government in some 
countries, in fact in most, but in others only pre- 
(45) 



tended or partial democracy was achieved. On 
the whole, central and eastern Europe remained 
dynastic, while western Europe became national 
liberal or democratic in policies and government. 

Study and Reading References. 

Hayes, Political and Social History, II pt. iv, esp. ch. xx. 
Hazen, Modern European History, chs. ix-xiv. 

, Europe since 1815, chs. xvii-xxiv. 

Holt and Chilton, Europe, 1862-1914, pt. i. 

Schapiro, Modern and Contemporary History, chs. viii-xiii. 

Seignobos, Europe since 1814, chs. xvii-xxiv. 

Study Problems. 

(1) What is nationality? What are the possible evils 
inherent in nationalism? Illustrate answers briefly 
from nineteenth century European history. 

(2) What is the American interpretation of the ideal 
of nationalism? Distinguish between good and bad 
nationalism. What European nations accept the 
American ideal in the main? 

(3) What are the various aspects of the democratic 
ideal? Which aspect do Americans emphasize? Is 
the ordinary American interpretation of democracy 
an adequate one? 

(4) Why and how did Germany develop its obnoxious 
type of nationalism? What are its more objection- 
able features? 

(5) What European states have the most developed na- 
tionalism? What are the most important obstacles 
to nationalism in the various countries? 

(6) Discuss the progress since 1850 towards democracy 
and liberal nationalism in Great Britain and in 
Prance and compare their political democracy with 
that of the United States. 

(7) Should the weaker nationalities have the same 
rights as the stronger? If so, why? What are 
Germany's arguments for the negative? 



(46) 



IX. Origin of the Prussian State and of the German 

Empire. 

(1) Importance of studying Prussia as the dominant 
state of the German Empire. The two great factors 
in her development (a) dynastic centralized con- 
trol by the Hohenzollern family and (b) expansion 
by conquest. Outline of Prussian state develop- 
ment. 

1. The Hohenzollern family. Its origin and 
early history. Castle counts of Zollern; 
burgraves of Nuremberg; electoral mar- 
graves of Brandenburg. Protestant in 
16th century for political ends and gain. 

Activities during the Reformation era. 

2. The Hohenzollerns inherit east Prussia 
(1618). Further gains in the Thirty Years' 
War and after. Frederick "William, the 
Great Elector (1640-1688) as a promoter 
of dynastic centralization and Brandenburg 

prosperity. 

3. Brandenburg-Prussia becomes a kingdom in 
1701. Militarist and conquering kings of 
the 18th century — Frederick William I 

(1713-1740) and his army, Frederick the 
Great (1740-1786) and his wars and con- 
quests. Great influence of the latter on 
Prussian ideals and policies. The mili- 
taristic traditions of the Hohenzollerns. 

4. Decadence of Hohenzollerns and of dynastic 
Prussia during the periods of the French 
Eevolution, Napoleon, and Metternich. 
Growth of Prussian liberal nationalism and 
desire for German unity on liberal con- 
stitutional basis. This movement opposed 
by Hapsburg and Hohenzollern reaction- 
aries. The industrial revolution in Ger- 
many and the Prussian Zollverein as a 
step towards national unity. 

(47) 



5. Prussian and German liberalism finds ex- 
pression in the revolutions of 1848-1849. 
The Frankfort Assembly and its failure to 
secure support from the Prussian King. 
Persecution of German liberals by the re- 
actionary governments and emigration of 
large liberal element from the German 
states to America and elsewhere. Effect 
of this seen in the decline of liberal 
democratic sentiment in Germany after 
1850. Difficulty of resurrecting liberal 
democratic nationalism. 

(2) The political unification of Germany under Prus- 
sian domination and how it was brought about by 
the conservative Prussian statesman Otto von Bis- 
marck during the later 19th century. Steps in this 
development. 

1. The difficulty of German political national 
unity. Certain prerequisites for its suc- 
cess: (a) dissolution of the Germanic 
Confederation; (b) elimination of Austrian 
influence; (c) compromises between dy- 
nastic and national liberal ideas and be- 
tween reactionaries and revolutionaries. 

2. The growth of Prussian dynastic and mili- 
tary power under William I (1861-1888). 
His chief friends and advisers von Moltke 
(1800-1891) and von Roon (1803-1897). 
The struggle of Prussian militarism with 
the Prussian Landtag or Parliament. The 
importance of the issue involved. Appear- 
ance of Bismarck as chief royal adviser. 

3. Otto von Bismarck-Schoenhausen (1815- 
1898) and his social and political position. 
A thorough Junker or aristocrat with 
strong convictions of dynastic nationalism. 
Development of his character and ideas 
as a politician. His abhorrence of democ- 
racy shown in his statement "I look for 
Prussian honor in Prussian abstinence be- 
(48) 



fore all things from every shameful union 
with democracy." 

4. Bismarck's career as a Prussian-German 
leader (a) the reactionary phase, opponent 
of liberal revolution (1848-1850) ; (b) 
Prussian conservatist phase, acceptance of 
Prussian constitution (1850-1851) ; (c) dip- 
lomatic phase, Prussian representative at 
Frankfort, Petrograd and Paris (1851- 
1862) ; (d) ministerial anti-parliamentary 
phase, supporter of enlarged army plans 
(1862-1866) : (e) Prussian-German nation- 
alistic phase, maker of a united Germany 
(1866-1890). 

5. Bismarck's belief in war as a political 
measure. His famous statement that "not 
by speeches and majority votes are the 
great questions of the day decided — that 
was the big blunder of 1848 and 1849— 
but by blood and iron." The carrying out 
of this idea in German unification by means 
of three wars (a) the Sehleswig-Holstein or 
Danish war (1864); (b) the Seven Weeks' 
War with Austria and her German allies 
(1866), followed by the North German 
Confederation (1867) ; and (c) the six 
months' war with France (1870-1871). 
Completion of Prussian-German unification 
by 1871. 

(3) The German Empire (Jan. 18, 1871—) established 
by Prussian military success against France and 
proclaimed in the French royal palace of Versailles, 
outside of Paris. The military strength and dom- 
ineering attitude of the new Empire from its be- 
ginning. Important policies and activities of Ger- 
many under the Bismarck regime. 

1. Surrender of Paris after a four month 

siege (Jan. 28, 1871). The severe and 

merciless terms of the Treaty of Frankfort : 

(a) Cession of Alsace-Lorraine with Metz 

(49) 



and Strasbourg; (b) Indemnity of one bil- 
lion dollars: (c) German occupation of 
France until indemnity was paid. Effect 
of the German victory jind peace terms on 
the combatants and on the other European 
powers. 

2. General character of Prussian-German gov- 
ernment — "the least democratic country 
of western Europe.' ' No real democracy 
or popular control, Reichstag a "debating 
society' ' and Prussia "a state of soldiers 
and officials." Prussia politically and 
militarily dominant. Whole system of ad- 
ministration and government highly or- 
ganized and bureaucratic. 

3. Bismarck's plans and policies of national 
consolidation under Prussian control. Uni- 
fication of legal system, public utilities, 
and military organization. The various 
political parties. The Kulturkampf and its 
failure. Bismarck's war on Socialism and 
his policies of state socialism and economic 
legislation. The protective tariff and colo- 
nial expansion. Treatment of Alsace-Lor- 
raine during the period of Bismarck. 

4. The death of William I and the double 
change in rulers in 1888. Decline of Bis- 
marck's power and influence owing to the 
ambition of Kaiser William II (1888) to 
rule personally. Bismarck's forced resigna- 
tion in 1890. His last years as a critic of 
the new regime and his death in 1898. 
Estimate of his position as a German na- 
tionalist opposed to German world empire. 

(4) The German empire under William II from 1890 
to the present. Maintenance of the Bismarckian 
tradition except in regard to anti-socialist legisla- 
tion. The new emperor described as "a natural 
ally of fire-eating militarists, of land-owning aris- 
tocrats, of conservative university professors, and 
(50) 



of the newer industrial magnates." Principal mat- 
ters of interest in Germany since 1890. 

1. Economic growth and development before 
the^ war. Increase in population. The 
various political parties and their impor- 
tance — no really liberal party owing to 
radical character of the Social Democrats. 
Increasing demand for more popular gov- 
ernment through electoral and parliamen- 
tary reforms in both Prussia and Germany. 
Little response to this demand on the part 
of the Hohenzollerns. 

2. William II and his many chancellors 
(1890-1918). Bismarck's' observation that 
"William II became his own chancellor." 
Treatment of Alsace-Lorraine since 1890. 
Local self-government and the Zabern af- 
fair. Eesponsibility of the Kaiser and his 
military projects for the World War and 
for German policy in making war. 

(5) Summary and conclusion: The rise of the Prus- 
sian state and the German Empire show the develop- 
ment of a powerful dynastic, militaristic, undemo- 
cratic type of selfish, egotistic nationalism which 
is a menace to democracy and must be reformed. 

Study and Reading References. 

Hayes, Political and Social History, I, 347-352, II, 180-194, 

397-426. 
Hazen, Europe since 1815, chs. xi, xiv. 

, Modern European History, chs. xix, xxi. 

, Government of Germany, War Information Series, 

No. 103. 
Hawkesworth, Last Century in Europe, chs. xvii, xxii, xxiii. 
Schapiro, Modern and Contemporary History, chs. vii, ix, xii. 
Seignobos, Europe since 1814, chs. xii, xiv, xv, xvi. 
Wilson, The State, 242-300. 

Study Problems. 

(1) Why must we study the origins of Prussia to 
understand the Germanv we are fighting against? 
(51) 



(2) "What were the important steps in the rise of the 
Hohenzollerns and the development of Prussia to 
the death of Frederick the Great? Discuss Prus- 
sian and Hohenzollern traditions and ideals as 
exemplified by Frederick the Great. 

(3) How did the French Revolution and the Napoleonic 
Wars bring about a growth of liberalism in Prus- 
sia? Why were the liberal movements of 1848 so 
unsuccessful in Prussia and Germany? Did the 
desire for German unity aid or hinder German 
liberalism? Why did the liberals in Prussia in the 
end surrender to Bismarck? 

(4) What were the chief obstacles to the unification of 
Germany? How did William I prepare the way? 
What were the social and political antecedents of 
Bismarck to 1862? 

(5) What was Bismarck's method of achieving German 
unity? Discuss his contest with the Prussian Diet. 
Did his three wars lead directly to the foundation 
of the German Empire? What disastrous effects 
has this method of unification had on German char- 
acter and ideals? 

(6) Discuss the strengthening of these ideals in Ger- 
many under Bismarck through the merciless peace 
of Frankfort, the extension of Prussian ideals of 
government to the Empire and military, legal and 
economic consolidation. 

(7) Discuss the continuation of Bismarckian policies 
under William II. Comment on his attitude to- 
ward demands of Social Democrats, on the issue 
of ministerial responsibility and on militarism. 
Point out how the war proves that Germany has 
been Prussianized. 

X. The Development of Popular Government in Great 
Britain and the Evolution of the British Empire. 

(1) The British Empire of ioday a great collection of 
self governing states with some dependent colonies. 
The center of the whole system is the mother coun- 
try known as Great Britain but frequently referred 
(52) 



to as England. Importance of the development of 
popular government in Great Britain as a back- 
ground to the war for democracy. 

1. Lack of democracy in Great Britain one 
hundred years ago. Existence of religious 
disabilities, which are removed in part in 
1828 and 1829. Parliamentary corruption 
and poor representation, and other political 
evils. Various reforms urged by the Whig 
or liberal party and by the middle classes. 

2. The passage of the reform bill of 1832 
by which (a) there is a general redistribu- 
tion of representation in the interest of the 
middle classes and a greater democracy; 
(b) a reform of the franchise by which the 
right to vote is given to several hundred 
thousand more electors though still greatly 
restricted. Further reform brought about 
by restricting the period of election to two 
days. The reform parliament and the new 
and more progressive political parties 
known as Liberals and Conservatives. 

3. Agitation for more radical reforms on the 
part of a number of philosophical radicals in 
and out of parliament. The Chartist move- 
ment and their "Six Points." Chartist 
riots and the failure of Chartism to ac- 
complish anything definite. Its influence 
felt in opinions and discussions. Move- 
ment of Christian socialism. 

4. Various special reforms of social and eco- 
nomic character in the early nineteenth 
century. Revision of criminal law, legaliza- 
tion of trade unions, poor law reform, 
prison reform, abolition of slavery, indus- 
trial legislation in regard to work in fac- 
tories and mines, and promotion to a limited 
extent of education. These reforms due 
very largely to the influence of the bour- 
geoisie in politics with their notions of 

(53) 



thrift and efficiency and their ideals of 
bettering conditions. 
5. Delay in putting through further measures 
of reform in Great Britain between 1840 
and 1867 due to the idea that reform had 
gone far enough. Some gains during this 
period along lines of free trade — such as 
the repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846. 
Growth of democracy among the working- 
men in their trade unions and other as- 
sociations. Need of further parliamentary 
reform and the attitude of political parties 
and leaders. 
(5, The two great political leaders of the mid- 
dle and later 19th century, Gladstone and 
Disraeli, both favorable to parliamentary re- 
form. The former a type of liberal bour- 
geois statesmanship and the latter stand- 
ing for constructive conservatism on the 
part of the aristocratic political classes. 
The passage of the second reform act in 
1867 followed by liberal political ascend- 
ancy under Gladstone with many further 
reforms of varied character. Almost com- 
plete realization of the "Six Points " of 
the Chartists. 

7. British popular government somewhat 
hampered by the power possessed by the 
highly aristocratic and partisan House of 
Lords. Measures taken to curb the House 
of Lords by the great Parliament Act of 
1911. Recent advances in popular govern- 
ment in Great Britain have brought about 
practically universal suffrage for both men 
and women. In some respects Great Britain 
is now the most democratic state in exist- 
ence in a political way. 

8. General character of present day British 
government: (a) Evolutionary historical 
character of the British constitution; (b)/ 

. (54) 



the popular parliamentary system of 
government by majority and the respon- 
sible cabinet; and (e) the centralization of 
government together with the existence 
of a well organized system of local 
administration. The British parties in 
recent times and the growth of the im- 
portant Labor Party with progressive 
policy. The alliance of Liberals and 
Laborites supported by Irish Home Rulers, 
against the Conservatives and Liberal 
Unionists. 
9. Growth of popular government in Great 
Britain as shown by recent social legisla- 
tion of importance under the leadership 
of British Socialists. The Factory and 
Mines Acts and other important social and 
economic measures relating to Sweated 
Labor, Minimum Wage. Workingmen's 
Compensation, Child Welfare, Old Age Pen- 
sions, Unemploj r ed Labor Exchange, Na- 
tional Insurance, Education, Trade Union- 
ism, Taxation of the Rich, Land Reform 
and many other subjects. Prominence of 
David Lloyd George as a liberal reformer 
as shown in his speeches and proposals. 

10. The agitation for Irish Home Rule a mani- 
festation of liberalism vigorously opposed 
by conservatives of all sorts. Irish national- 
ism due to race tradition, insularity, relig- 
ious and economic oppression and other 
historic wrongs. Deep-seated feeling of 
Irish Nationalists against England and in- 
cessant demand for Home Rule. 

11. Gladstone's Home Rule bills of 1886 and 
1893 and their failure. Passage of the 
Home Rule bill of 1912. Ulster and Union- 
ist opposition and danger of civil war in 
Ireland. The Home Rule Act of 1914 and 
its temporary suspension during the war. 

(55) 



The Irish rebellion of 1916 and the atti- 
tude of Ireland towards the war and to- 
wards conscription. The future of Ire- 
land. 

(2) The evolution of the British Empire since the early 
17th century. Beginnings of British colonization 
in America and India. Rapid growth of -British 
colonial population and extension of British colo- 
nial territory by successful war in the later 17th 
and during the 18th and early 19th centuries. 
Character and composition of the British Empire 
of to-day. • «» 

1. The greatest world empire that has ever 
existed. It size, population and varied 
character. Classification of its divisions un- 
der three heads (a) Self-Governing Colo- 
nies; (b) Crown Colonies, possessing few 
rights of self government; and (c) pro- 
tected colonies, such as India and Egypt, 
which it is the intention to develop along 
lines of national democracy. 

2. The great Self-Governing colonies or 
British colonial nations making up half of 
the British Empire. The evolution of popu- 
lar government in Canada, Australia, New 
Zealand and South Africa. The Boer "War 
(1899-1902) in connection with the union of 
South Africa in 1909. Slight British control 
over the dominions and the movement for 
Imperial Federation by means of (a) im- 
perial preference (b) imperial conference 
and (c) imperial defense. The splendid 
support given to the war by the British 
colonial nations. 

3. The Crown Colonies and how they differ 
from Self-Governing Colonies. British 
West Indies, numerous Crown Colonies in 
Africa, important Naval Stations, Pro- 
tectorates and territory controlled by 

(56) 



Chartered Companies all come under the 
head of Crown Colonies. British control 
over Egypt before the beginning of the 
World War when Egypt became a Pro- 
tectorate. 
4. The Empire of India. Importance of India 
to Great Britain. Its extent, geographical 
divisions, races, religions and political dis- 
censions. Earlier history of British India 
especially since the middle 18th century. 
The work of the empire builders of India 
such as Clive, Hastings, and others. The 
Indian Mutiny (1857) and its results. 
Political unrest in India and the Indian 
Councils Act of 1909. Recent reforms 
in India pointing towards democratic na- 
tionalism. Economic advantage of India 
to Great Britain. 

(3) Summary and conclusion: Great Britain and her 
principal colonies have developed a system of popu- 
lar government of flexible democratic character 
while the British people have had remarkable suc- 
cess as empire builders in all parts of the world. 
Advantages to British manufacturers and capital- 
ists of the "far flung empire." Importance of sea 
power to Great Britain and her empire and the 
maintenance of a very powerful navy in spite of 
enormous cost. The probable future of British 
imperialism along democratic and national lines. 

Study and Reading References. 

Hayes, Political and Social History, II, 28-36, 102-116, 277- 

330, 640-678. 
Hazen, Europe since 1815, chs. xviii-xxii. 

, Modern European History, chs, xxv-xxvii. 

Schapiro, Modern and Contemporary History, chs. v, xiv, xv. 
Seignobos, Europe since 1814, chs. ii-iv. 

Study Problems. 

(1) In what respect was Great Britain lacking in demo- 
cracy in the early 19th century? What changes 
(57) 



and reforms soon took place and what was their 
effect? 

(2) How was popular government promoted and devel- 
oped during the middle and later 19th century. 
Discuss the character, career and reforms of Wil- 
liam Ewart Gladstone as a representative of bour- 
geois liberalism. 

(3) Explain "Home Rule for Ireland" agitation and 
the reasons back of it. What is your opinion on 
the question and on the proper attitude of Ireland 
towards the World War? 

(4) What significance do you attach to the following: 
(a) Reform of the House of Lords; (b) British 
social legislation during recent years ; (c) Grow- 
ing strength of organized labor in Great Britain. 
Is the war likely to make Great Britain more demo- 
cratic and if so why? 

(5) How and why did Great Britain's colonial empire 
begin? What change of policy took place early in 
the 19th century? Of what types of colonies is it 
composed? What value has the empire been in the 
war? 

XI. Colonial Expansion and National Imperialism. 

(1) Importance of colonial expansion to the European 
states. Underlying motives of economic, patriotic 
and religious character. Colonial rivalry as cause 
of national jealousy and of war. Examples. 

(2) The background to modern colonial expansion. De- 
cline of the old colonial movement based on mer- 
cantilism. Achievements and defects of early colo- 
nization to 1815 on the part of Spain, Portugal, the 
Dutch, France and Great Britain. The partial dis- 
covery and Europeanization of the New World. 

(3) The new colonial expansion and imperialism due to 
the industrial revolution and the French revolu- 
tion. Rapid spread of the idea of colonial im- 

(58) 



perialism during the later 19th century. Analysis 
, of the motives back of the movement. 

1. The economic motive. Protection and colo- 
nial markets. " Trade follows the flag." 
Question as to the validity of this motive. 
Illustrations from recent colonial economic 
experience. Private investments and priv- 
ate profits an important element in con- 
nection with colonial imperialism on an 
economic basis. 

2. The patriotic motive. Colonies for national 
power and prestige. Also for surplus popu- 
lation. Criticism of this idea when applied 
to tropical colonies and* even to others. 
German and British statistics of emigra- 
tion. 

(4) Colonial expansion and liberal nationalism in pos- 
sible conflict. The relation of imperialism to demo- 
cracy. Self-determination of peoples and their ex- 
ploitation and improvement. Taking up "the white 
man's burden" and following "manifest destiny." 

(5) Special manifestations of colonial expansion in re- 
lation to the war and its issues. 

1. Teutonic colonial expansion and colonial 
ambitions in all parts of the w^orld. Ef- 
forts to realize these lead to building of 
powerful navy and attempting to acquire 
new territory at the expense of European 
and non-European peoples. The German 
maxim "a place in the sun." 

2. Possession by Great Britain of a vast colo- 
nial empire of varied character. "The sun 
never sets on the British flag." Deter- 
mination of Great Britain to maintain her 
colonial supremacy on a basis of colonial 
liberty and self-government — "what we 
have we hold." The Boer War and its 
results on the Boers. British colonialism 
constantly growing more liberal and demo- 
cratic. 

(59) 



3. Russian-Slav colonial expansion toward the 
east and south. Occupation of Siberia and 
desire to expand further. Persia and her 
subjection to Russian and British influence. 
The Anglo-Russian frontier and its influ- 
ence on the relation of Russia and Great 
Britain. 

4. Colonial expansion and imperialism in 
China and the Far East. The dismember- 
ment and reassembling of China. Japanese, 
Russian, British, French, German, Dutch 
and American interests in the Far East and 
the issues raised there by the adherence 
of China, Japan and Siam to the allied 
cause. 

5. The American continent protected from 
further colonial imperialism by the Monroe 
Doctrine. German hopes of colonial imper- 
ial support from North and South America 
not realized. Colonies of Germans in South 
America, particularly Brazil, and their re- 
lation to the German colonial office. 

6. The loss by Germany of all her colonies in 
the World War and the question of their 
return as an issue of the war. Arguments 
for and against their return of political, 
economic and social character. German 
colonial methods notoriously cruel and bar- 
barous. Examples from Africa. 

(6) Colonial expansion and imperialism shown to be due 
to various motives of which the economic and patri- 
otic are most important. Great Britain the leading 
and most successful example of colonial imperial- 
ism. The German Empire jealous and ambitious for 
world and colonial domination in the interests of 
German political imperialism, economic prosperity 
and German "Kultnr." 



(60) 



Study and Reading References. 

Hayes, Political and Social History, II, chs. xxvii, xxviii. 
Hazen, Europe since 1815, chs. xxiii, xxx. 

, Modern European History, chs. xxviii, xxxv. 

Schapiro, Modem and Contemporary History, ch. xxviii. 

Study Problems. » 

(1) What were the motives for the colonial expansion 
of the European nations before 1815? Why were 
colonies considered of value? Discuss the rivalries 
of European nations for colonial empire and how far 
was the world Europeanized by 1815? 

(2) In what three ways has the Industrial Revolution 
developed newer colonial imperialism? What are 
the patriotic arguments for colonial expansion and 
how sound are they? How far are economic argu- 
ments justified by experience and statistics? 

(3) What are some of the possible conflicts of the ideals 
of democracy with the new imperialism as to (a) 
subject peoples; (b) European countries them- 
selves ? 

(4) How was the German Empire handicapped in colo- 
nial expansion? How did she attempt to overcome 
these handicaps? What did Germany mean by "a 
place in the sun" and what did this imply? 

(5) How do you explain Great Britain's remarkable 
success as a colonial power and empire builder? 

(6) Comment on the problems in the Far and Near 
East occasioned by ambition for colonial expansion 
and national imperialism. 

XII. The New France After 1870 and its Republican 
and Democratic Development. 

(1) The making of the French Republic of today. The 
revolutionary proclamation of the Third Republic 
(Sept. 4, 1870). The election of the National As- 
sembly. Adolphe Thiers as "Chief of the Execu- 
tive Power" and later as President. The Bordeaux 



(61) 



Compact. Constitutional monarchist character of 
the Assembly. Its problems and achievements. ' 

1. Conclusion of peace with Germany. Pay- 
ment of the indemnity within a very short 
period. Evacuation of France by the Ger- 
mans. Beginning of the new France on a 
bourgeois liberal basis. 

2. Difficulties of the new government with 
the revolutionary commune at Paris. Dis- 
like on the part of the workingmen for 
bourgeois control. Suppression of the Paris 
rebellion with great severity. Significance 
of the commune. Moderate liberal char- 
acter of the French republic. Middle class 
popular support. 

3. Powers of the National Assembly. The 
Rivet Law (1871). Conversion of Thiers 
to republicanism as "that form of Govern- 
ment which divides us least." His insis- 
tence on conservatism as against the ag- 
gressive republicanism of Leon Gambetta 
and the monarchism of Marshal MacMahon. 

4. Financial achievements and military re- 
forms of the National Assembly. Its poli- 
cies in regard to local governments and 
centralization. Monarchists and Republi- 
cans in conflict over form of permanent 
central government. Monarchical restora- 
tion prevented by the reactionary attitude 
of the Comte de Chambord in regard to 

the tricolor flag. National Assembly ac- 
cepts republic. Constitutional laws of 
1873. 

5. General character of the government of the 
Third Republic. Supremacy of the Cham- 
ber of Deputies or Parliament and of its 
agents the ministry or cabinet. Power of 
the Premier or Prime Minister as com- 
pared with that of the President. "The 
President of France neither reigns nor 

(62) 



rules. ' Frequent changes of ministry in 
France and existence of numerous party 
groups under personal leaders. 
6. End of the National Assembly in 1875. 
Marshal McMahon as President and leader 
of the monarchists. Gambetta as repub- 
lican leader and his policy of anti-clerical- 
ism in opposition to the monarchists. The 
Chamber of Deputies strongly republican 
and this forces McMahon 's resignation in 
1879. Definite triumph of republicanism 
in France since that date. 

(2) The liberal bourgeois republic and its repression of 
clericalism and military nationalism. Progress of 
democracy under moderate republican auspices. The 
character of the governing class in France since 
1879. Notable absence of aristocrats and clericals 
and prevalence of men of average middle class type 
of intelligence. Important aspects of recent French 
development. 

1. Growth of material prosperity. Promotion 
of agriculture by the republican govern- 
ment. Remarkable growth of French in- 
dustry and manufacture. Adoption of a 
high customs tariff. Aggressive colonial pol- 
icy based on clerical, patriotic and capital- 
ist support. Increase of wealth and expan- 
sion of foreign investments. 

2. Important social legislation in regard to 
employment of women and children, limita- 
tion of working hours, observance of Sun- 
day or other day as "a day of rest," fac- 
tory legislation, regulation of mines, recogni- 
tion and protection of trade unions and 
combinations, settlement of trade disputes 
by arbitration, workmen's compensation, 
and old age pensions. 

3. Guarantee by the republic of individual 
liberties, as freedom of meeting and 

(63) 



speech, freedom of the press, freedom of 
associations, except in the case of monastic 
establishments of the Roman Catholic 
Church. Humanitarian legislation in regard 
to the criminal law and treatment of de- 
pendent children. Liberal attitude toward 
divorce. Different social standards in 
France. 

4. Steady growth of anti-clericalism in repub- 
lican France. Basis of the conflict is op- 
position to monarchism and ideal of 
democratic state education for French youth 
in public schools instead of in church 
schools. The Ferry Laws of the early 
eighties and their importance. The mon- 
archist-clerical element and the Boulanger 

. episode (1887-1889). Results of Boulanger's 
failure — greater stability of Third Republic. 

5. The sensational Dreyfus affair and its 
significance as a monarchist-clerical agita- 
tion against the Jews and their influence. 
Intense political and social feeling as be- 
tween "Dreyfusards" and "i\nti-Drey- 
fusards." Final victory of the Dreyfusards 
and the outcome of the whole affair. France 
becomes more anti-clerical, anti-monarch- 
ical, and anti-militaristic as a result. 

6. The revival of anti-clerical agitation as 
seen in the Associations Act of 1901. Fur- 
ther legislation along this line by which 
church and state in France become com- 
pletely separated and diplomatic relations 
with the Vatican are broken off. Reasons 
for the continued clerical opposition to 
French republicanism. Efforts at compro- 
mise made by Briand, partially successful 
in 1907. Present condition of the question. 
Revival of religious feeling in France. 

7. The political groups and parties in France. 
The group system of France distinguished 

(64) 



from the two-party system of Gfeal Britain 

and the United States. Composition and 
character of the various political groups 
in France such as the Right and Left, the 
monarchists, Unified Socialists, Action Lib- 
erale, the Bloc, and various subdivisions 
and minor parties. 

(3) The new Prance on the eve of the World War. 
Problems of taxation and social reform, proportional 
representation, militarism in regard to the new army 
bill (1913), clericalism, and increase of political 
Socialism. Passage of the new army bill in 1913 in 
spite of Socialist opposition. Assassination of Jaures 
(1914). The elections of 1914 and the Unified 
Radicals opposed by the Federation of the Left. 
General spirit of French patriotism and liberal 
nationalism in spite of party differences and ad- 
vanced Socialist ideas. 

Study and Reading References. 

Hayes, Political and Social History, II, 331-3-67. 
Hazen, Europe since 1815, ch. xv. 

, Modern European History, ch. xxii. 

Schapiro, Modern and Contemporary History, ch. xi. 

Study Problems. 

(1) Explain the genesis of the new France and the 
immediate problems of the nation after 1870. 

(2) Discuss the national assembly as the government of 
France, 1871-1875. Comment on the reorganization 
of the army, of finances, and of local government. 

(3) What were the parties in France during the first 
decade of the Third Republic, their leaders and 
their purposes? Comment on the contest between 
them and explain the final triumph of the Repub- 
licans in 1879. 

(4) What has been the general character of the govern- 
ing class in France since 1879? Show how the 
Third Republic has fostered material development, 

(65) 



colonial expansion and social reforms, and has safe 
guarded personal liberty. 

(5) What is meant by the "group system" in Prance? 
Compare it with the party systems of Great Britain 
and the United States. Describe and discuss the 
various groups in contemporary France. 

(6) Analyse the political and economic problems and 
issues in France on the eve of the World War. 
Compare the strength of republicanism and de- 
mocracy in France in 1879 and 1914. 

XIII. The Development of Nationalities in the Near 
East. The Balkan States. 

(1) The basis of nationality in the Near East rests 
primarily on historic past represented in language 
and literature, religion, and previous political or- 
ganization. Complicated by Turkish conquests and 
control, intermixture of peoples, and foreign in- 
terests. Intensive character of Balkan nationalism. 

(2) Greece. With a population of about 5,000,000, self 
styled descendants of classic Greeks, who inhabit 
the end of the Balkan peninsula, and the islands 
about it.. Greeks also live along the remaining shores 
of the Aegean and on the sea of Marmora with scat- 
tered settlements on the Euxine. Factors in the 
development of modern Greece. 

1. The modern national movement began with 
the revival of language study by Koraes. 
Foundation of Eetairia Phillike in 1815 led 
in part to Greek revolt (1821-1829). Otto 
of Bavaria becomes king. Russia, France 
and England force the adoption of a 
constitutional regime. Revolution of 1862 
resulted in the accession of George I (1863- 
1913), a Danish prince. 

2. Development of Pan Hellenic movement to 
regain all territory formerly held by the 
Greeks. Economic advantages of control of 
the Aegean trade. Constantinople regarded 

(66) 



as a center. Ionian isles given by England 
(1864) ; Crete, after long delay, in 1912. 
Most of continental Greeks added in same 
year by war. Constantine I on accession 
in 1913 looked upon himself as Constantine 
XIII, continuing the line of Byzantine em- 
perors which had ended in 1453. 

3. Venizelos, the great Cretan Pan Hellenist, 
becomes prime minister. Originator of 
Balkan confederation. Stood by allies from 
first in present war and was ousted from 
office by the pro-German ruler Constan- 
tine. Now in control again as chief min- 
ister of Alexander I (1917-). 

4. Settlement in regard to Greece complicated 
by the continued control of Rhodes and 
the Dodecanese by Italy since Tripolitan 
War. Concessions due Grecian nationalism. 

(3) Serbia. Largest and one of the most historic 
nationalities in the Balkan region. With closely 
connected Croats of Austria-Hungary form solid 
block of 8,500,000 Jugo-Slavs. Serbians in Serbia 
numbered 3,000,000 before the war. Existence of 
great Serbian national empire in 13th and 14th 
centuries covering all the west part of the Balkan 
peninsula. The Serbian power broken and destroyed 
by the Turks at Kossovo (1389). 

1. Revolt of Serbs under Kara George coun- 
tenanced by Russia in 1804 but failed when 
Russian support was withdrawn. Milosh 
Obrenovitch, a local pork dealer, became 
ruler of the province under the Sultan in 
1830. In 1839 he abdicated rather than 
accept a constitution. Changes in rulers in 
middle 19th century. Prince Michael 
(1860-1878) and the Greater Serbia policy. 

2. Serbia becomes independent in 1878 and a 
kingdom in 1882. War with Bulgaria 

(67) 



(1885). Constitution of 1889 and abdica- 
tion of King Milan (1878-1889). 

3. Alexander I (1889-1903). Reactionary poli- 
cies. Autocratic personal rule. Unpopular 
acts. Alexander's assassination in 1903 
brought the present ruler, Peter Kara- 
georgevitch, to throne. Gave opportunity 
for the development of the Greater Serbia. 

4. Development of nationalistic societies. An- 
nexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina great 
blow to irridentist dreams. Economic de- 
velopment of country controlled by Aus- 
tria on account of lack of seaports. Fric- 
tion with Austria culminated in the assassi- 
nation at Serajevo. 

5. Outlook for future of Serbia depends 
largely on relations with Montenegro and 
with Serbs and Croats of Austria-Hungary. 

(5) Montenegro. Populated by a few thousands of 
Orthodox Serbs who have always maintained a 
semi-independence of Turks. Also under Russian 
influence and favor but princely house has inter- 
married with Italian royal family. Present dynasty 
founded in 1851. Prince Nicholas granted demo- 
cratic constitution in 1905 with universal man- 
hood suffrage. Nicholas assumed title of King in 
1908 and increased territory in the Balkan wars. 
Future bound up with Serbia with which arrange- 
ments for union already under way before the war. 
The Albanian problem and its probable solution. 

(6) Bulgaria. Second largest nationality in peninsula 
with population of 4,700,000 lying south of lower 
Danube. Existence of great Bulgarian empire in 
middle ages composed of mixture of Mongol Bul- 
gars and Slavs. Orthodox Greek in religion. 

1. First autonomous Bulgaria in 1878 with 
autocephalous Greek church under an Ex- 
arch. Prince Alexander of Battenberg (1878- 

(68) 



1886) chosen as ruler. Country under in- 
fluence of Russia. National aspirations. 

2. Nationalist party led by Stambolov devel- 
oped to resist Russian control. Eastern 
Rumelia annexed (1885). Alexander forced 
to abdicate in 1886 and recent ruler, Fer- 
dinand of Saxe-Coburg, elected. 

3. Bulgaria becomes independent kingdom in 
1908. Ferdinand takes the ancient title of 
Tsar of the Bulgars. Unfortunate out- 
come of the Balkan wars for Bulgaria. 

4. Bulgaria an essential link in the Berlin 
to Bagdad enterprise and, therefore, an 
object of German diplomacy. Failure of 
allies to enlist support of Bulgaria in the 
war followed by declaration of war upon 
Serbia (Oct. 14, 1914). Bulgaria thus be- 
came an ally of the Central powers. 

(7) Rumania. 11,000,000 Rumanians, including Transyl- 
vanians, north of the lower course of the Danube, 
linguistically descended from Roman colonists of 
Dacia. Formed from provinces of Wallachia and 
Moldavia connected in the middle ages with Tran- 
sylvania as a part of Wallachian-Bulgar empire. 

1. In 18th century Russian influence obtained 
a semi-independent administration for Mol- 
davia and "Wallachia from Turkey. Both 
principalities put under collective guarantee 
of powers in 1856. United in 1859 and in 
1862 sultan recognized their ruler Alex- 
ander Couza of Moldavia, as prince of 
Rumania. Alexander forced to abdicate in 
1866 and a Hohenzollern, Charles I (1866- 
1914), elected as ruler. Present king is 
Ferdinand I (1914-) His wife, queen Marie, 
a British princess and strongly pro-ally. 

2. Roumania has constitutional government 
with responsible ministry but constant 
struggles between conservatives and liber- 

(69) 



als occur. Became a kingdom in 1881 and 
completely independent in 1898. Internal 
problems: land system and anti-Semitism. 

3. Foreign policy of Rumania dictated by 
irridentist hopes and by trying to hold bal- 
ance between Russian and Austro-Hungar- 
ian influences. Stirred by plans to unite Ru- 
manians of Bessarabia and Transylvania to 
Rumania proper. Took opportunity of sec- 
ond Balkan war to force Bulgaria to cede 
part of Dobruja. 

4. Led to take part in present war by promises 
of autocratic Russia and ruined by unwise 
strategy and German intrigue. Servile 
peace forced upon her in 1917 through col- 
lapse of Russia. Outlook for expansion of 
Rumanian nationalism. 

(8) Summary and conclusion. The history of the Balkan 
states complicated by various factors such as their 
past national greatness and intense racial and poli- 
tical rivalries. Problem of reconstruction simplified 
by their sufferings during the world war which 
may make them more tolerant of each other. 

Study and Reading References. 

Hayes, Political and Social History, II, ch. xxvi. 
Hazen, Europe since 1815, ch. xxviii. 

, Modern European History, ch. xxxiii. 

Holt and Chilton, History of Europe, 1862-1914, 504-510 
Schapiro, Modern and Contemporary History, ch. xxvii. 
Seignobos, Europe since 1814, ch, xxi. 
War Cyclopedia, Articles under names of Balkan states. 

Study Problems. 

(1) Discuss the serious difficulties confronting the es- 
tablishment of the various nationalities in the Bal- 
kans. 

(2) What interests have led foreign countries to assist 
Balkan nationalities to achieve their independence? 
Wherein do these interests clash? 

(70) 



(3) Consider the problem of Serbian nationality in its 
relations to Austria-Hungary and Montenegro. What 
Slav problem in its relation to Serbia? 

(3) Trace the reasons for particular hatreds between 
the Serbs and Bulgars. How far have they had 
a chance to operate during the World War? What 
influence may they have in the settlement? 

(5) What common bonds of sympathy and interests have 
tended to bind the Balkan states together in the 
past? What divergence in interests, if any, might 
render the establishment of Balkan federation im- 
possible? Would the elimination of Turkey in Eu- 
rope help in the solution of the problem? 

(6) What are the difficulties connected with the estab- 
lishment of a greater Rumania? On what ideals 
is it based? 

XIV. International Relations and Diplotnacy. The 
Great Alliances and the Armed Peace. 

(1) The dominant idea in international relations of 
Europe during most of the 19th century that of 
maintaining peace by "The Concert of Europe" 
or co-operation of sovereign states. This system 
inaugurated in 1815 under conservative and re- 
actionary auspices. Domination of the five major 
powers, not always in harmony, Austria, Russia, 
Prussia, France and Great Britain. Growth of 
British isolation from continental entanglements and 
her reliance on her sea power. 

(2) Permanence of the idea, if not the organization, of 
a European Concert. The few short wars such as 
the Crimean War, 1854-1856; the Franco-Italian- 
Austrian War, 1858-1859 ; Prussian-Austrian-Danish 
War, 1864; Austrian-Prussian War, 1866; and the 
Franco-Prussian War. 1870-1871. Important serv- 
ices rendered by the Concert of Europe in settling 
difficulties of cultural character complicate the Jugo- 
wars and establishing international law. 

1. The Congress of Paris (1856) and the so- 
called "Declaration of Paris" for the 
(71) 



protection of neutral trade in times of war 
against (a) privateering; (b) violation of 
neutral flag? (c) protection of neutral 
goods under enemy's flag; (d) limitation of 
blockade. Influence of these restrictions. 
The Geneva Convention of 1864 in regard 
to wounded soldiers and the neutralizing 
of medical war service. Organization of an 
international Red Cross Society with spec- 
ial emblems. Extension of the Geneva 
Convention and the Red Cross organization 
to the United States (1883), Turkey and 
Japan. Its great significance and value. 
Further invocation of the principle of the 
Concert of Europe in the settlement, at the 
Congress of Berlin (1878), of the Near- 
Eastern question. Various minor manifes- 
tations of the existence of the principle of 
the Concert between 1878 and 1914 both 
in regard to European and colonial issues 
and disputes. Examples of this in connec- 
tion with the Balkan states and Turkey, 
Congo Free State, and in regard to China. 
Influence of the idea of international set- 
tlement by sovereign states on popular In- 
ternationalism, as a means of bringing about 
world peace. The strong anti-militarist and 
pacifist movements of pre-war times. Desire 
for international arbitration and disarma- 
ment. The Hague Peace Conferences of 
1899 and 1907. Dangerous idealism of the 
pre-war pacifists in view of the armed 
peace which existed in Europe. 
Various practical obstacles to international 
peace such as (a) intensive nationalism 
and uncritical patriotism; (b) existence of 
territorial problems such as Alsace-Lor- 
raine, Poland, Turkey, Bohemia, and the 
Balkan nations; (c) militaristic viewpoints 

(72) 



and desires of various nations and parties; 
(d) rapid expansion of national armaments 
on the plea of national defence; (e) scien- 
tific justifications of the permanence of 
militarism and militant nationalism as fac- 
tors in civilization. 

(3) The Concert of Europe seriously affected by the 
emergence after 1870 of the German Empire as a 
dominant European power and the later formation 
of great alliances of groups of rival powers. The 
importance of the diplomatic history of Europe 
between 1871 and 1914. Its leading characteristics 
must be studied. 

(4) The Hegemony of Germany, 1871-1890, and the 
formation of the Triple Alliance based on the 
common interests of Germany and Austria. Features 
of the period of German hegemony. 

1. German military political dominance on 
the continent of Europe. Great Britain 
dominant on the sea but aloof from con- 
tinental European issues. Bismarck's for- 
eign policy one of isolating France by keep- 
ing on good terms with the other powers. 
His dread of coalitions against Germany. 
His policy towards Austria-Hungary and 
Italy. How he kept on good terms with 
Russia and Great Britain. 

2. The Three Emperors' League (1872) and 
its maintenance for many years. Danger 
of a second war against France owing to 
her rapid recovery. Bismarck's reputed 
desire for such a war and the hostile at- 
titude of Russia and Great Britain towards 
any attack on France. Bismarck and the 
Russian chancellor Gortchakoff. 

3. Bismarck and the Russo-Turkish War of 
1877-1878. The Treaty of San Stefano 
and the calling of the Congress of Berlin 
under- Bismarck's auspices. How he played 

(73) 



the part of "the honest broker" in inter- 
national affairs at the Congress. Signi- 
ficance of the settlements made at Berlin 
from the viewpoint of Teutonic imperialism 
in middle Europe. 

4. Formation of a defensive alliance between 
Germany and Austria-Hungary in 1879 and 
utilization of Italian resentment against 
France to draw Italy into a Triple Alliance 
(1882) with the Teutonic powers. Un- 
natural and unstable position of Italy as a 
member of this alliance fully realized by 
Bismarck. Objects of the Triple Alliance. 

5. Improved relations between Germany and 
Russia, 1881-1890. The secret three-year 
convention of neutrality (1884). Its re- 
newal in 1887. Pro German attitude of the 
Tsar Alexander III. Practical isolation 
of France among the nations between 1871 
and 1890. Impossibility of maintaining this 
isolation much longer seen by Bismarck. 

(5) Formation of the Dual Alliance, the Anglo- Japanese 

Alliance, the Entente Cordiale and the Triple 

Entente, as anti-German manifestations of European 

diplomacy. Establishment of a new balance of 

power which threatens German hegemony. The 

probable conflict of the alliances. Important aspects 

of European diplomatic history between 1890 and 

1914 from the point of view of the allied nations. 

1. The growth of Pan-Slavism in Russia, the 

industrial revolution which called for 

French loans, the desire of France for an 

ally, the change in German foreign policy 

under Bismarck's successor, Caprivi, all lead 

to less friendly relations between Russia 

and Germany and an increase of cordiality 

on the part of Russia and France. The 

preliminaries to the Dual Alliance of 1891- 

1894. 

(74) 



2. Recent publication of the terms of the Dual 
Alliance show it to have been a purely 
defensive compact against possible Ger- 
man aggression and a forecast of the crisis 
of 1914. Formation of the Dual Alliance 
created a balance of power in Europe. 

3. Aloofness of Great Britain from both al- 
liances but growing distrust on her part of 
Germany on account of German ambitions, 
economic expansion, and naval progress. 

4. General reasons for the growing op- 
position between the governments and peo- 
ple of the British Empire and the German 
Empire. They stand for different ideals 
and methods of government and interna- 
tional relations. Evidences of increasing 
rivalry and friction late in the 19th century. 

5. The attitude of Germany in regard to naval 
expansion, colonial expansion, the Boer 
War and other matters antagonized Brit- 
tish public opinion. Great Britain isolated 
on account of rivalry with Russia and 
France and finds it difficult to make Eu- 
ropean alliances. 

6. The formation of the alliance between 
Great Britain and Japan in 1902 an evi- 
dence of British desire to emerge from her 
"splendid isolation.' ' Value of the Japan- 
ese alliance limited on account of its 
Asiatic character. Probable exaggeration 
of British alarm in regard to the possibility 
of a great continental alliance against her. 
Her desire to make friends with France. 

7. The policies and diplomatic work of 
Theophile Delcasse "the Nemesis of Bis- 
marck. " His valuable service to France 
in settling differences with Great Britain 
which resulted in the Entente Cordiale of 
1904. This Entente not a definite alliance 
but rather a settling of a long standing 

(75) 



quarrel and an agreement to work in har- 
mony. King Edward VII and the Entente. 

8. Difficulty of maintaining the Entente Cor- 
diale during the Russo-Japanese War of 
1904-05. Results of the Russian defeat 
favorable to the enlargement of the Entente 
to include Russia, the result being the 
Triple Entente of 1907. Basis of this agree- 
ment in an understanding on Anglo-Rus- 
sian eastern problems. Bringing of Japan 
into agreement with the Triple Entente 
by 1910. Coalition for defense against Ger- 
many. 

9. Delcasse's policy of conciliating the Latin 

states of Europe especially Spain and 
Italy. Delimination of Franco-Spanish 
spheres of influence in Morocco and settle- 
ment of north African problems of Tunis 
and Tripoli with Italy. 

(6) Summary and conclusions: The breakdown of the 
old Concert of Europe followed by a period of 
German Hegemony (1871-1890) which is threatened 
by the formation of alliances and ententes by rival 
powers in the later years of the 19th century. Im- 
portance of considering the conflicts and diplomatic 
crises arising in the vears immediately preceding the 
World War. 

Study and Reading References. 

Hayes, Political and Social History, II, 679-703. 
Hazen, Europe since 1815, topics in chs. xiv-xvii, xxiii. 
. Modern European History, topics in chs. xxi-xxiv, 

xxxiii. 
Hawkesworth, Last Century in Europe, pts, iv-v. 
Holt and Chilton, History of Europe, 1862-1914, 154-316. 
Schapiro, Modern and Contemporary History, 684-699. 
Seignobos, Europe since 1814, part III. 
War Cyclopedia, Articles on Concert of Europe, Congress of 

Berlin, Dual Alliance, Triple Alliance, Entente, etc. 

Study Problems. 

(1) Explain the origin and original purposes of the 
Concert of Europe. Point out its most important 
(76) 



services in settling wars, extending international 

law and along other lines. What were the more 
important international conferences and what did 
they accomplish? 

(2) Comment on the development of the ideas of 
international arbitration and world peace. What 
positive results, if any, were attained before 1914? 
What were the most dangerous obstacles to the 
peace movement that rendered it somewhat futile 
and visionary? 

(3) How did the formation of the German Empire seri- 
ously affect the Concert of Europe? Explain Bis- 
marck's success in securing the hegemony of Grr- 
many through militarism, the Triple alliance, the 
isolation of France and neutral or friendly relations 
with Great Britain and Russia. 

(4) Show how the economic needs of Russia and the 
international isolation of France gradually developed 
into a Dual Alliance of strictly defensive character. 

(5) Explain the reasons for Great Britain's growing 
distrust of Germany and of her own policy of 
"splendid isolation." 

(6) Describe the diplomatic revolution of the early 
twentieth century and the formation of the Entente 
Cordiale and of the Triple Entente. What were 
the objects of these understandings? 

XV. The Conflict of Alliances and the Great Diplomatic 
Crises Between 1905 and 1914. 

(1) German resentment against the formation of rival 
alliances. Her policy to break up or weaken the 
Triple Entente and to strengthen the Triple Al- 
liance by expanding Teutonic power and influence 

• in southeastern Europe, insisting on her right to 
take part in all aspects of world politics, cultivating 
the good will of Turkey and threatening the peace 
of Europe. 

(2) Effect of the German attitude on European diplo- 
macy before the war. Delcasse's work stands the 

(77) 



test but serious crises occur especially in regard to 
Morocco and the Near East. 
(3) The Moroccan question arising out of German jeal- 
ousy at being ignored by Delcasse in arranging 
with Spain and Great Britain for the control of 
Morocco. A few German capitalists interested in 
Morocco seek intervention against that country 
becoming a French protectorate. The result of the 
German attitude seen in the three Moroccan crises. 

1. The first Moroccan crisis. Kaiser William 
II makes a speech at Tangier in Morocco 
(1905) asserting Moroccan sovereignty and 
independence of foreign control. France 
resentful but not prepared for war. Resig- 
nation of Delcasse. Submission of the 
Moroccan question to an international con- 
gress at Algeciras (1906). Guarantee of 
the "open door" in Morocco. France and 
Spain given police powers. The part played 
by the United States in the Algeciras con- 
gress. Germany forced to "play fair." 

2. The second Moroccan Crisis (1908). Land- 
ing of French soldiers at Casablanca (1907). 
German protests against French military 
occupation. German consul at Casablanca 
protects French deserters from arrest and 
causes crisis. Dispute referred to the Hague 
Tribunal. Conclusion of the Franco-German 
convention of 1909. Germany admits "only 
economic interests" in Morocco, which 
France agrees to safeguard. 

3. The Third Moroccan Crisis (1911). German 
militarists resent the pacific attitude of 
Chancellor von Bulow in 1909 and force 
his resignation. Desire to reopen Moroccan 
question leads to the Agadir incident of 
1911. Danger of war and British declara- 
tion by Sir Edward Gray in support of 
France. Backdown of Germany in the 
Franco-German convention of 1911. Ger- 

(78) 



many not to oppose French protectorate in 
Morocco, France to maintain open door 
and cede Germany part of the French 
Congo. France resents this blackmail. 
4. Successful results for France of the Moroc- 
can incident but increased apprehension in 
regard to outbreak of a war in Europe. 
Consolidation of the Franco-British friend- 
ship. German resentment against the other 
powers for checking her ambitions. 
(4)* The Near Eastern question, 1898-1914. German 
and Austrian ambitions in middle and southeast 
Europe opposed by Russia and Serbia and 
the seriousness of this conflict. Concessions by 
Rumania in 1898 to Germany and Austria and the 
visit of the Kaiser to the Sultan in 1899. Valuable 
concession of the Bagdad railway and Austrian 
influence over Serbia, to 1903, and over Bulgaria. 
Hohenzollern dynastic influences in Rumania and 
Greece. Pan-Germanism versus Pan-Slavism. 

(5) Teutonic power and influence back of the main- 
tenance of Turkey in Europe as against Russian 
policy to gain Constantinople. Decline of ^ British 
influence in the Near East and growing political and 
military control of the Teutonic empires. Only 
check to Teutonism was the revolution in Serbia 
which put the Pan-Slavic party in power (1903). 

(6) The development of a series of great diplomatic 
s crises in southeast Europe between 1908 and 1914 
lj* one of the chief causes of the war of 1914. These 

crisis due to the conflict between Pan-Germanism 
and Pan-Slavism in the region of the Balkan states 
Three principal crises before the war. 

1. The First Near Eastern Crisis (1908) caused 
by Austria annexing the Serb populated 
districts of Bosnia-Herzegovina in 1908. 
This done in defiance of the agreements 
made in 1878 at the Congress of Berlin, 
which had given these provinces to be ad- 
ministered, but not owned, by Austria. 
(79) 



The " Young Turk" revolution of 1908 and 
consequent unsettlement taken advantage 
of by Austria. The Kaiser takes his 
stand "in shining armor" by the side of his 
ally. Acquiescence of Russia, Serbia, and 
other powers in this violation of treaty 
obligations. Effect of this Pan-German 
triumph on Pan-Slavism and the peace of 
Europe. Serbian hatred of Austria-Hun- 
gary. 

2. The Second Near Eastern Crisis (1911-1912) 
caused by the Tripolitan "War between 
Turkey and Italy. Various reasons for 
Germany and Austria objecting to this 
conflict. Weakening of Turkey, strength- 
ening of Italian nationalism and national- 
imperialism, detachment of Italy from the 
policies of the Triple Alliance. Connection 
of this war with the next crisis in southeast 
Europe. Italian national-imperialism. 

3. The Third Near Eastern Crisis (1912-1913) 
takes the form of a series of Balkan Wars 
against Turkey and among the Balkan 
states. The first Balkan War declared Oc- 
tober 16, 1912, by a league of Greece, Ser- 
bia, Bulgaria and Montenegro against Tur- 
key. Failure of the great powers to agree 
on any program of intervention. Success 
of the Balkan allies reduces Turkish terri- 
tory and power. Treaty of London (1913). 
Second Balkan War (1913) between Bul- 
garia and the other Balkan states resulting 
in the defeat of Bulgaria. Recovery by 
Turkey of Adrianople. Disappointment of 
Serbia as to sea coast. The Treaty of 
Bucharest (Aug. 10, 1913). 

4. Significance of these repeated crises in 
southeastern Europe and particularly of 
the Balkan wars of 1912-1913. European 
War prevented with difficulty, largely 

(80) 



through the diplomacy of Sir Edward Gray, 
the English Secretary for Foreign Affairs. 
5. Austrian and German influence seriously 
impaired by their support of Turkey and 
Bulgaria. Increase of Russian and Serbian 
influence in the Balkans seemed to call 
for aggressive diplomacy and war on the 
part of the great Teutonic Powers. 

(7) Summary and conclusions: The various conflicting 
interests of the alliances and the aggressiveness of 
German military diplomacy bring about a number 
of serious crises between 1905 and 1914. The 
danger of war becomes greater and greater and 
the continental states prepare for its possible out- 
break by increased armaments. The year 1913- 
1914 one of active preparation in Germany, Aus- 
tria-Hungary, Russia, France and minor states of 
Europe. Europe becomes a great powder magazine 
ready to explode when the next spark is struck. 
Study and Reading References. 

Hays, Political and Social History, II, 528-546, 703-710. 

Hazen, Europe since 1815, topics in chs. xiv-xvii. 

, Modern European History, topics in chs. xxi-xxiv. 

Holt and Chilton, Europe, 1862-1914, 365-387, 438-538. 

Schapiro, Modern and Contemporary History, 700-708. 

War Cyclopedia, Articles on Balkans, Bagdad Railway, 
Delcasse, Morocco, Tripoli, etc. 

Study Problems. 

(1) Show how Germany strove to retain her hegemony 
through expansion in the Near East and insistence 
on a share in all aspects and discussions of world 
politics. 

(2) Explain the occasions for the three Moroccan 
crises. "What did Germany demand in each case? 
What were her real purposes? What did she secure? 

(3) Comment on the interests of Germany and Austria- 
Hungary in the Near East. Discuss the progress 
of German influence there previous to 1908. 

(4) Explain briefly the chief political, racial and econ- 
omic problems in the Near East. 

(81) 



(5) Comment on the conflicting aims of Pan Germanism 
and Pan Slavism in the Balkan region. Show how 
they were involved in the politics and crises pre- 
ceding the World War and how Germany and 
Austria-Hungary " backed the wrong horses.' ' 

(6) How was the failure of German diplomacy in the 
Balkans somewhat retrieved after the second Balkan 
War? How did this increase the danger of an 
international conference? What indications were 
there during 1913-1914 of the fear of such a war? 

PART III. 

THE WORLD WAR AND ITS ISSUES. WAR AIMS. 

XVI. The Causes, Character, and Progress of the World 

War. 

(1) General conditions making for war in Europe. 
Racial nationaJ jealousy — Teuton and Slav, Ger- 
man and Frenchman, German and British. Ger- 
many's positive belief in and desire for war in 
order to fulfill German destiny and promote Kultur. 
The will to war with and gain victory over the 
Entente powers as a step to European and world 
imperialism. German attitude responsible for war. 

(2) Special or particular causes back of the war. 
Many of these outlined in the two previous sections. 
The feeling of militaristic Germany that her hegem- 
ony could only be maintained or restored by 
force of arms. Blunder of Germany in increasing 
her sea power to such an extent as to alarm and 
antagonize Great Britain. The readiness of Ger- 
many and Austria to pursue at all costs an anti- 
Slav policy in southeast Europe. Pan-Germanism. 

(3) Immediate causes of the war to be found in the 
German-Austrian threat against Serbia. Immediate 
causes not so important as the special and remote 
ones. Deserve to be studied as an example of 

(82) 



secret military diplomacy and as showing Ger- 
many's responsibility for the war. 

1. The assassination of the Austrian heir-ap- 
parent, Archduke Francis Ferdinand, at 
Serajevo in Bosnia on June 28, 1914. The 
crime committed by a Bosnian conspirator 
under Serbian influence. Indirect responsi- 
bility of Serbia, which she was ready to 
acknowledge. Political object of the as- 
sassination in desire for an independent 
Jugo-Slav kingdom which should include 
Serbia. The rival Austrian project. 

2. Curious lack of immediate consequences of 
the assassination. Probable secret and 
rapid preparation for mobilization and war 
by Germany and Austria. Evidence of this 
from various sources. The rumored Potsdam 
Conference of July 5, 1914. Importance 
of a month of preparation to German ship- 
ping, finance, and military organization. 

3. The Austrian Ultimatum to Serbia, July 23, 
1914. Its harsh and peremptory character. 
Unconditional acceptance demanded within 
48 hours of humiliating demands which 
infringed on Serbian sovereignty and na- 
tional honor and independence. Comment 
of the Berlin newspaper Vorwarts to the 
effect that "the demands are more brutal 
than any ever made upon any civilized 
state in the history of the world and they 
can be regarded only as intended to provoke 
war." Similar comments from other 
sources. 

4. Seeming desire of Germany and Austria to 
win a complete victory by brutal diplomacy 
or to drive Serbia and her supporter, Rus- 
sia, to war. Russia, France and England 
all seek to prevent war by advising Serbia 
to submit to the Austrian demands. Ser- 
bia's conciliatory, and apparently satis- 

(83) 



factory, reply rejected with scorn by Aus- 
tria. Declaration and almost immediate 
beginning of war on Serbia by Austria, 
July 28-29,1914. Belgrade attacked. 

5. Impossibility of limiting the war to Austria 
and Serbia. Russia's interest in the affair. 
Germany in close touch with and backing 
Austria. France the ally of Russia and 
ready though not eager for war. Great 
Britain a friend and possible ally of both 
France and Russia. The stage set for a 
great conflict at the close of July, 1914. 

6. The diplomatic correspondence preceding 
the war and what* it showed. Rejection by 
Germany of all plans of mediation between 
Austria and Serbia. The German ultima- 
tum to Russia, ordering her to demobilize, 
and the demand on France for an explicit 
statement of her intentions. The well es- 
tablished responsibility of Germany for 
the war. The "Willy-Nicky" correspond- 
ence. 

7. Damaging testimony against Germany of 
her former ambassador to London, Prince 
Lichnowski, that "it would have been easy 
to find an acceptable solution" for the 
points in dispute and that "given good 
will everything could have been settled in 
one or two sittings" and that "a hint 
from Berlin" would have caused the ac- 
ceptance of the Serbian reply by Austria. 
Instead of this, he says, "we pressed for 
war." Evidence from other sources. 

8. Necessary conclusion that the Teutonic 
empires were willing and even anxious to 
bring about war as they considered the 
time favorable for Pan-Germanism. No 
real desire on their part for peace and 
compromise. Futility of all diplomatic 
negotiations. Hope and expectation of 

(84) 



Germany to strike quickly and win over- 
whelming military victory before the other 
powers were prepared. 

(4) Declarations of war by and against Germany and 
Austria between July 28 and August 27, 1914. The 
various nations of Europe who engaged in the 
conflict. Expansion of the war to include Turkey 
as an ally of Germany (October-November, 1914) 
and Italy, at first neutral, as an ally of Great Brit- 
ain, France and Russia against Austria-Hungary 
(May 23, 1915). General alignment of the powers 
at war in Europe at the end of the first year. 

1. Violation of Belgian neutrality by Germany 
resisted bravely by the Belgians at Liege. 
Conquest and occupation of Belgium and 
retreat of the French and British towards 
Paris before enormous German armies. 

2. The remarkable victory of the French and 
British at the Marne (First battle of the 
Marne, Sept. 6-10, 1914). Retreat of the 
Germans to the Aisne and beginning of 
trench warfare and stationary Operations. 
The saving of the channel ports by General 
Foch and the British. 

3. Russian successes on the east front checked 
and turned into defeat by Hindenburg who 
becomes the military idol of Germany. Suc- 
cessful Russian campaign against Austria 
and expulsion of Austrians from Serbia. 
German expectation of a short war dis- 
appointed. Allied strength and resources 
make for a long struggle against German 
military organization and central position. 

4. Serious German losses of shipping and col- 
onies. German sea power lapses after vari- 
ous raiders are captured or sunk and her 
grand fleet stays in harbor at Kiel. Be- 
ginning of submarine activity and of in- 
direct means of transportation of materials 
into Germany. British error in delaying 
to blockade all of Germany from the sea. 

(85) 



5. Unrest in the Balkan states of Rumania, 
Greece, and Bulgaria. Alarm in small neu- 
tral countries such as Switzerland and Hol- 
land. Agreements by the greater allied 
powers not to make any separate peace but 
to act together. Little prospect of any 
speedy conclusion of the conflict with both 
sides resolved on and confident of victory. 
Temporary advantage gained by Germany 
early in 1915 counterbalanced by allied 
numbers, resources, and control of the sea. 

(5) The second year of the World War (1915-1916) 
marked by (a) failure and abandonment of the 
Gallipoli expedition against ' Turkey ; (b) the great 
German failure at Verdun; (c) entrance of Bul- 
garia on the side of Germany and the invasion and 
occupation of Serbia and Montenegro by Austro- 
Germans and Bulgarians; (d) partially successful 
allied offensive on the Somme (July 1916) ; (e) naval 
battle of Jutland (May 31, 1916)— German fleet 
declines to continue battle; (f) successful Russian 
offensives against Austrians and Turks. 

(6) The third year of the World War (1916-1917) 
marked by (a) entrance of Rumania (Aug. 27, 1916) 
on the side of the Allies and her speedy defeat and 
conquest by the Austro-Germans and Bulgarians; 
(b) unrestricted submarine warfare by Germany 
after some hesitation and after diplomatic ne- 
gotiations with the United States ; (c) entrance of the 
United States into the war (April 6, 1917) followed 
by similar action by many small nations ; (d) German 
retreats and reverses before allied pressure on 
west front — the Hindenburg line; (e) British 
successes in the east, Bagdad and Jerusalem; (f) 
Russian revolution. 

(7) The fourth year of the World War (1917-1918) 
marked by (a) the collapse and break-up of rev- 
olutionary Russia under fanatical Bolsheviki leader- 
ship and the peace with Germany at Brest-Litovsk 
(March 3, 1918) ; (b) Italian defeat and disaster 

(86) 



at Caporetto followed by stand at the Piave with 
French and British assistance; (c) successful series 
of German drives in Prance soon followed by almost 
equally successful allied counter-offensives. 
(8) The fifth year of the World War (1918-1919) 
marked so far by (a) continued allied successes on 
almost all fronts — western, Balkan and Syrian; 
(b) appearance in Europe of large American forces 
capable of conducting successful offensives; (c) 
German-Austrian, Bulgarian and Turkish alarm 
and increasing desire to make a compromise peace, 
(d) Collapse of Bulgaria and near collapse of Tur- 
key, (e) Peace offensives on the part of Austria 
and Germany. 

Study and Reading References. 

Belloc, General Sketch of the European War, 2 vols, issued. 
Conquest and Kultur, Committee on Public Information, No. 

5. 
German War Practices, Committee on Public Information, No. 

6. 
German Treatment of Conquered Territory, Committe on 

Public Information, No. 8. 
Harding, Study of the Great War, chs. i, iii-vii, ix. 
Lichno wski, Revelations of a Diplomat. 
New York Times, Current History of the War. 
Simonds, History of the Great War. 
Wells, Italy, France and Great Britain at War. 
War Cyclopedia, articles on belligerents and under "War." 
Year Book, New International Encyclopedia, "War of the 

Nations.'" An excellent survey. 

Study Problems. 

(1) What were the underlying racial and national 
jealousies back of the immediate causes of the 
war? What German beliefs made the war almost in- 
evitable? What do you think of such beliefs? 

(2) Discuss the more important special causes leading 
to the war referred to in the second section. 

(3) Comment on the relatively less importance of the 
ultimatum to Serbia. Why is it worth studying in 
any detail? How was Serbia involved in the as- 
sassination of the Archduke Francis? What is the 

(87) 



only reasonable explanation of the brutality of 
Germany and Austria-Hungary toward Serbia? 
(4) Explain clearly how Russia, France and England 
were successively involved in the struggle. What 
is the evidence that Germany was more than will- 
ing for a great European conflict? 

XVII. German War Aims and the Issues of the War in 
Regard to Germany. 

(1) The importance of understanding the war aims and 
ideas of the Hohenzollern government. Need to 
know what we are fighting against as well as what 
we are fighting for. When we understand this we 
can discuss the issues of the war in regard to Ger- 
many. Value of knowing enemy's hand. 

(2) General idea in German war aims is that of national 
imperial gain at the expense of others. Some few 
Germans, and the number is probably increasing, 
willing to support a status quo issue of the war. 
Very few as yet ready to submit to idea of defeat 
and territorial and financial losses. Positive war 
aims of Germany may be stated as follows. 

1. Greater sea power and maritime outlets 
in the west. Belgian and French coasts 
to become German. Combined with this 
is the demand for the iron region of 
Briey and Longwy which would greatly 
diminish France's already meager iron 
supply. Economic importance of this issue. 

2. The Mittel Europa or Middle Europe 
issue. The constitution of a central Eu- 
ropean group of German controlled states 
such as Poland, Austria-Hungaria, Bulgaria, 
and others. This now practically estab- 

. lished and Germany hopes to hold her 
gains in Central Europe. 

3. The completion under German control of 
the Berlin to Bagdad railway which would 
assure Germany a strong and dangerous 

(88) 



political and economic predominance in the 
Near East and bring her wealth. 

4. German colonies now lost to be recovered 
and even added to, especially in Africa 
where it is hoped to create a great Ger- 
man middle African colonial empire. This 
is an anti-British aim and would cut ath- 
wart the Cape to Cairo route. 

5. The gain of new land in North east Europe 
taken from Russia, but inhabited in part 
by Germans, as part of the movement of 
Pan Germanic reclamation. Livlancl and 
Courland involved. Russia weakened. 

6. The gain of territory for German coloni- 
zation between Germany and Russia at 
the expense of the latter, for the purpose of 
removing the present inhabitants and sub- 
stituting German agriculturalists. 

7. The securing of heavy indemnities through 
victory -over the allies to reimburse Ger- 
many for her vast expenses and losses 
during war. The German belief in war as 
a business proposition as well as a good 
thing in itself is embodied in this as in all 
her war aims. 

(3) The war aims and issues in regard to Germany 
on the part of the allies and the United States 
include the whole or partial defeat of the above 
mentioned German war aims. In addition they in- 
clude the following definite proposals. 

1. The absolute defeat of German militarism 
and the overthrow of the Hohenzollern 
militaristic regime and policy. 

2. The restoration by the Teutonic allies of all 
conquered territory and restitution of, or 
reparation for, Alsace-Lorraine seized by 
Germany in 1871. A difficult question. 

3. Payment by Germany for injuries and 
wrongs done to the Belgian nation since 

(89) 



the beginning of the war. Similar payment 
to other allied states that have been injured. 

4. The righting of the wrongs committed 
against the Poles and against Russia, both 
those of the past and of recent occurrence. 

5 Guarantees of future good conduct on the 
part of the German government and nation. 
Unwillingness of allies and United States 
to accept promise from the present rulers 
of Germany. Distrust of Prussian promises. 

(4) No evidence that present government of Germany 
is willing to meet the idea of the allies and the 
United States as to the issues of the war. Main- 
tenance by the Kaiser of the viewpoint of divine right 
monarchy and glorious German victory. Examples 
of this attitude in his recent utterances. 

1. At the close of 1917 the Kaiser declared 
"the year 1917 with its great battles 
has proved that the German people has in 
the Lord of Creation above an unconditional 
and avowed ally — if the enemy does not 
want peace (a German peace) then we 
must bring peace to the world by battering 
in, with iron fist and shining sword, the 
doors of those who will not have peace." 

2. Early in 1918 the Kaiser declared "we 
desire to live in friendship with neighbor- 
ing peoples but the victory of German arms 
must first be recognized." And again 
recently he said "the prize of victory 
must not and will not fail us. No soft 
peace, but one corresponding with Ger- 
many's interests." 

(5) Summary and conclusion. Germany must be forced 
to abandon her imperialistic and militaristic war 
aims and ambitions; to change her system and 
ideals of government; to restore conquered terri- 
tory and make reparation for wrongs committed; 
and to give guarantees for good behavior in the 

(90) 



future. These aims can only be accomplished by 
victory of the allied arms as Germans cannot 
understand any other sort of argument, The 
allies must defeat Germany not for the welfare, 
of England, or of France, or of the United States 
alone but for that of the world and humanity and 
for the preservation of all nations from future wars. 

Study and Reading References. 

Bevan, German War Aims (Harper Bros.). 

Conquest and Kultur, Committee on Public Information, No. 5. 

Harding, Study of the Great War, 33-34, 91. 

War Cyclopedia, Articles on German colonies; German gov- 
ernment, bad faith of; Germany Military Autocracy 
Plan of, Propaganda of for War and other topics under 
Germany and her aims. 

Study Problems. 

(1) Why is it important to understand German war aims 
and the German view as to the issues of the war? 
What is the general idea of Germany as to war 
aims? Why are such aims out of date? 

(2) Name the principal special war aims of Germany 
and show how each is a violation of the rights of 
other countries or peoples. 

(3) What attitude must the allies and the United States 
take in regard to German war aims? Why is this 
attitude right and necessary? 

(4) What special war aims have the allies and the 
United States in regard to Germany and her rulers? 

(5) What is the attitude of Germany up to now in 
regard to allied and American peace and how is this 
shown? What lesson is driven home by the Kaiser's 
words? How must the war end? 

XVIII. War Aims and Issues in Regard to Belgium 
and France. 

(1) The important questions of restoration of territory 
and reparation for injuries suffered by the two 
neighboring countries of Belgium and France. Era- 

(91) 



phasis on these points by President Wilson in his 
speeches- (see Appendix A.) and by Prime Minister 
Lloyd George on behalf of the Allies (see Appendix 
B.). Consideration of each of these questions in con- 
nection with the countries involved. 
(2) The issue in regard to the kingdom of Belgium one 
of first and greatest importance. The necessity 
of making Germany restore and as far as possible 
indemnify the Belgian state and people for their 
losses in the war. The situation in regard to 
Belgium as a state. Its history and characteristics. 

1. Belgium a small independent liberal na- 
tional monarchy since 1831. The guarantee 
of her neutrality by the great powers in 
1839. Nature of her government consti- 
tutional and representative. A bi-cameral 
legislature chosen by voters on a basis of 
universal manhood suffrage, since 1894. 

2. The Belgian rulers since 1831. Leopold I 

(1831-1865), an enlightened, tactful and 
able constitutional head who promoted 
Belgian prosperity by every means possible. 
Leopold II (1865-1909), a shrewd and 
enterprising king of business instincts, 
with some faults, who also promoted the 
prosperity of the country. Albert I (1909- 

), a liberal and patriotic leader of his 

people. His services in the present war. 

3. Rapid economic growth of Belgium result- 
ing in great increase of population and 
wealth. More immigration than emigration. 
The Belgians a contented industrial people 
who had benefited greatly by the Industrial 
Revolution. Important manufacturing and 
mining and extensive railway mileage. 
Enormous exports and imports — much 
larger than either Spain or Italy. 

4. Belgium largely a Roman Catholic country 
but very liberal and tolerant in matters of 
religion. Catholic, Protestant, and Jewish 

(92) 



churehes aided by the state. Some dif- 
ference of opinion as to public education 
. between the Catholic party and the Liberal 
party since 1847. Ascendancy of the Lib- 
erals (1847-1884). Organization of a work- 
ingmen's Socialist party (1885). Suprem- 
acy of the Catholic party since 1884. 
Liberal character of the Catholic political 
regime. Religious instruction and further- 
ance of education. Removal of property 
qualifications for voters and practical uni- 
versal suffrage, but introduction of plural 
voting. Proportional representation (1899). 
Socialist opposition in 1913 unsuccessful. 
Important social legislation by the Catholic 
party such as — protection of trade unions 
(1898) ; system of old age pensions (1900) ; 
and minor legislation in regard to housing 
and public welfare. The generally enlight- 
ened and progressive character of Belgian 
government under Liberal Catholics. 
Acquisition by the Belgian government in 
1908 of the Belgian Congo and the entrance 
of the little kingdom into colonial and 
world politics. Distrust of inviolability 
under guarantee of neutrality leads to the 
military law of 1909 and the erection of 
numerous fortifications towards Germany. 
Importance of the port of Antwerp. 
Desire of Germany to acquire control of 
Belgium in an economic as well as a 
political way one reason for the violation 
of Belgian neutrality in August, 1914. 
Strategic importance of Belgium in the 
war probably, in part at least, an excuse. 
The valiant but unavailing resistance of 
the Belgians to German invasion and oc- 
cupation. Delay, a setback to Germany. 

Belgium under German control (1914 ). 

German military and civil government in 
(93*) 



Belgium. Effort to create race division 
and friction between the Flemings and Wal- 
loons on linguistic and religious grounds. 
Failure of this attempt owing to intense 
spirit of Belgian nationalism on the part of 
both racial elements. German tyranny of fi- 
nancial, military and economic character. 
Difficulties in the way of expelling the Ger- 
mans from Belgium except by indirect pres- 
sure. Probable retreat from Belgium. 
10. Important problems in connection with the 
ultimate restoration and repatriation of the 
Belgians. German proposals in regard to 
Belgium must be disregarded as they are 
based on the theory of a German victory 
or at least an indecisive result in the war. 
The allies must decide on the proper re- 
paration for Belgium and must satisfy 
the Belgians as far as possible. 

(3) War aims and issues in regard to the French Re- 
public involve two questions of importance — (a) 
restoration of territory and (b) payment for in- 
juries and losses due to German occupation. The 
first of these involves not only territory now oc- 
cupied by German armies but the former French 
provinces of Alsace and lower Lorraine which were 
taken from France after the war of 1870, against the 
wishes of the loyal French speaking populations 
who vigorously protested against being handed over 
to Germany. 

1. The Alsace-Lorraine question a very his- 
toric one. Origin of this district far back 
in the middle ages as a buffer state be- 
tween France and Germany. Doubtful 
validity of the German claim to possession 
of this territory on the basis of historic 
right. The will and attitude of the people 
of the districts more valid according to 
twentieth century ideas. 

(94) 



2. Importance of Alsace-Lorraine from an 
economic standpoint on account of its large 
and valuable deposits of iron and coal 
which Germany desires to keep for her 
industries. Increased value of these dis- 
tricts since 1871 make their cession very 
difficult for Germany to consider or agree 
to. Slight difference in the allied demands 
in regard to Alsace Lorraine as between 
restitution and reparation (See Appendix 
A and B). 

3. Various proposals which have been made 
for the settlement of the Alsace Lorraine 
issue. Danger of resorting to a plebiscite 
unless under most rigid neutral supervision. 
Difficulty of attempting to neutralize this 
region on a basis of local self government. 

4. Strong French national feeling in regard 
to the "lost provinces" based on patriotic 
sentiment quite as much as economic de- 
sire. No evidence of Alsace Lorraine hav- 
ing become Teutonized in sentiment but 
much to the contrary. 

(1) Summary and conclusions: Belgium a prosperous 
and peaceful little kingdom with its neutrality 
guaranteed. Germany wantonly and brutally in- 
vaded and occupied Belgium and must be made to 
restore it and pay damages to the Belgians. The 
same is true of northern France. The Alsace-Lor- 
raine question a difficult one to adjust but Ger- 
many must clearly restore these provinces or 
compensate France for their loss. 

Study and Reading References. 

Hayes, Political and Social History, II, 389-296. 
Hazen, Europe since 1815, 579-583. 

, Modern European History, ch. xxx. 

J. S. Schapiro, Modern and Contemporary History, 484-494. 
War Cyclopedia, articles on Belgium, Neutrality. Alsace 
Lorraine, etc. 



(95) 



Study Peoblems. 

(1) What fundamental questions are involved in the 
issues of the war as regards both Belgium and 
France? How do these differ in regard to each 
country ? 

(2) Give an account of the origin and pre-war history 
of Belgium along governmental, economic and po- 
litical lines. How and why did Belgium come to 
increase her military strength? 

(3) Discuss Germany's motives in invading Belgium 
and the significance of the determined Belgian 
resistance? How has the German occupation and 
treatment of Belgium affected outside opinion? 

(4) Explain Germany's policy of administration in 
Belgium noting especially her emphasis on the 
race division, her collection of indemnities and her 
deportation of Belgians. 

(5) What was the origin of the Alsace-Lorraine ques- 
tion? How has Germany benefited materially by 
the crime of 1871? What attitude do Frenchmen 
take towards the lost provinces? Do you think 
Germany ought to be made to return them, if so, 
why? Are other solutions desirable? If so, why? 

XIX. The Kingdom of Italy and the Issues of the War. 

(1) Issues of the war in regard to the kingdom of 
Italy have to do with much the same matters as 
in the case of France. The really important question 
that of Italia Irredenta or "unredeemed Italy", 
meaning the regions around the northern Adriatic 
inhabited by Italian speaking people but under the 
political control of the Austrian empire. The rea- 
sons for the Italian demand found in the character 
of the Italian kingdom and its history. 

1. Italy an example of liberal centralized na- 
tionalism. Its problem, from the beginning 
of unification in the nineteenth century, 
one of bringing about social and economic 
unity out of diverse states inhabited by 

(96) 



Italian speaking populations. Contrast be- 
tween the prosperous and progressive north- 
ern districts and the backward and un- 
developed southern region inhabited by 
ignorant peasants and infested with 
brigands. Rapid improvement in the south. 

2. Progress in the construction of highways, 
railways, bridges and harbors between 
1870 and 1914. The compulsory education 
law of 1877, though not rigidly applied, 
had its beneficial results. Heavy expense 
of economic unification but maintenance 
of national unity in spite of political 
quarrels between northern and southern 
leaders. Good tradition of Italian nation- 
alism and liberalism. 

3. General character of Italian government, 
liberal parliamentary. Popular organ of 
government, the Chamber of Deputies. 
Aristocratic, but somewhat honorary Senate, 
of large size. Political parties on the 
''group system," as in France. Executive 
power in the hands of cabinet and prime 
minister. Frequent changes of ministries. 

4. Perplexing problem in Italy of the relation 
of Church and State owing to the attitude 
of the pope and the Roman Catholic 
Church towards the Italian kingdom. Ca- 
vour's ideal of "a free church in a free 
state" impossible to realize up to the 
present. Liberal policy of the Italian gov- 
ernment in matters of religion save as re- 
gards monasticism which was suppressed 
in large part. 

5. The position of the pope under the law of 
papal guarantees (1871) and the attitude 
of the popes up to the present, De- 
sire of the papacy to keep Catholics from 
voting or holding office and the claim that 
the pope is a prisoner in the Vatican. 

(97) 



6. Italian political issues and foreign re- 
lations between 1870 and 1896 largely 
dominated by motives of colonial imperial- 
ism and marked by the ascendancy of 
Depretis (1876-1887) and Crispi (1887- 
1896) both southern Italians who counten- 
anced political corruption and military 
imperialism. The failure of Italian colon- 
ial ambitions in Abyssinia by the defeat 
at Adowa (1896). Fall of Crispi. 

7. The three Italian rulers of the house of 
Savoy— Victor Emmanuel II (1861-1878) ; 
Humbert (1878-1900), who was assassinated 
by a fanatical anarchist; and Victor Em- 
Manuel III (1900 ) — all brave and pat- 
riotic. Inauguration of much more liberal 
policies in Italy since 1896 under the au- 
spices of the present king. 

8. Maintenance of Italian military and naval 
strength considered necessary on account 
of Mediterranean problems. Its seeming 
justification in the successful war with 
Turkey and the occupation of Tripoli and 

1 Cyrenaica (1911-1912). Italy ambitious to 
maintain national imperialism in the central 
Mediterranean region. 

9. Economic and social policies and conditions 
in Italy. Protective tariff and governmen- 
tal bounties increase manufacturing and 
exports and imports. Great industrial and 
commercial development since 1897. Pro- 
motion of agriculture and important social 
legislation similar to that in other countries. 
Problem of larger Italian emigration to the 
United States and South America. Return 
to Italy of many of these emigrants. 

10. Difficulties in solving social and economic 
problems on account of rivalries and con- 



(98) 



flicts between Clericals, Republicans, So- 
cialists and Syndicalists. Rapid growth 
of Socialism in Italy, though not so rapid 
as in France. Existence of a considerable 
degree of revolutionary economic Syndical- 
ism among the workmen in Italy previous 
to the war. 

11. Intense national patriotism a basic factor 
in Italian political and social life. The 
Italian ideal one of resurrecting the ancient 
glory and power of Roman Italy. Strong 
desire to regain the Italian regions of the 
Trentino, Trieste and eastern Adriatic 
coast which were regarded as properly 
belonging to Italy rather than to Austria. 
"Irredentisni" complicated by Slav ele- 
ments in the population along the eastern 
Adriatic. Italian interests in the Aegean 
Sea. 

12. Italy's attitude towards the Triple 
Alliance influenced greatly by Irredentism. 
Her period of neutrality ended in May, 
1915, by her entry into the war on the basis 
of the recovery of Italia Irredenta, The war 
treaties with the allies and their subsequent 
modification. Probable character of the 
settlement of Italy's claims one of com- 
promise in regard to Adriatic and Aegean. 

13. Italy's part in the war a difficult one, but 
bravely and creditably maintained in spite 
of serious difficulties and reverses. Her 
claim on American friendship and good 
will should not to be disregarded. Her 
sacrifices entitle her to a fair settlement 
at the close of the war. 

(5) Summary and conclusions: The war aims and is- 
sues in regard to Italy involve restoration of terri- 
tory and reparation for losses and injuries suffered 
at Teutonic hands. Necessary to impress on the 
Teutonic mind the seriousness of making a war of 
(99) 



conquest and invasion with destruction of property 
in a wanton way. Italian national history shows 
mixture of centralized nationalism and national- 
imperialism. 

Study and Reading References. 

Hayes, Political and Social History, II, 367-378. 
Hazen, Europe since 1815, 376-387. 

, Modern European History, ch. xxx. 

J. S. Schapiro, Modern and Contemporary History, ch. xvii. 
War Cyclopedia, articles on Italia Irredenta, Italy, etc. 

Study Problems. 

(1) In what way does the problem or war issue in re- 
gard to Italy resemble that in regard to France? 
How does it illustrate the failure of national 
boundaries in Europe to coincide with national 
sentiment ? 

(2) Comment briefly on the character of the Italian 
kingdom as regards government, regional differ- 
ences, economic life, and foreign and colonial poli- 
cies. What advances have been made. 

(3) What is the basic sentiment of the Italians and 
how does it explain Irredentism and Italy's en- 
trance into the war? How far is Italy's attitude 
in international and colonial affairs consistent with 
the principles of democracy and free nationalism? 

(4) Discuss Italy's part in the World War and the dif- 
ficulties she has had to face. How will the winning 
of the war by the allies and the United States af- 
fect Italy? What should she give up? 

XX. Issues of the War in Regard to Austria-Hungary 
and the Czecho-Slovaks and Jugo-Slavs. 

(1) The Dual Monarchy and its character. Austria's 
historical position as a dynastic power in central 
Europe. Early acquisition of Hungary and Bohemia, 
with Moravia, as dynastic national kingdoms. 
Other nationalities in the Empire — Poles, Ruthenians, 
Rumanians of Transylvania, Serbo-Croats, Slovenes, 
(100) 



Bosnians and Herzegovinians, Dalmatians and 
Italians. More Slavs than Germans or Magyars. 

(2) The general and special character of present Austro- 
Hungarian government. The Ausgleich or agree- 
ment of 1867 between the Empire of Austria and 
the kingdom of Hungary. Joint ruler with separate 
governments. Provision for joint parliament or 
council, the Delegations, and joint ministry of war, 
finance and foreign affairs. Comparison and con- 
trast between Austrian and Hungarian governments 
Former more liberal than latter. The reactionary 
Hungarian attitude toward Transylvania and the 
Serbo-Croats. Hungarian nationalism undemocratic. 

(3) Serious problems of national and democratic char- 
acter in both parts of Austria-Hungary owing to 
jealousies and conflicts of the numerous races and 
nationalities making up the Dual Monarchy. 

1. Strained relations at times between Austria 
and Hungary over questions of contribution 
for joint government, tariffs, army, banking 
and foreign affairs. United foreign policy 
of both states in southeast Europe. The 
affairs of Bosina-Herzegovina (1878-1905); 
the Balkan wars (1912-1913); and the 
World War, (1914---). 

2". Discontent and conflicts of races and nations 
under Austrian control: (a) the Czecho- 
slovak desire for a separate Bohemian- 
Moravian national state of 8% million 
Czechs and Slovaks, with its capital at 
Prague. The historic justification and pro- 
bable realization of this demand, (b) The 
Polish national aspirations of 5 million 
Austrian Poles for a reunion with Prussian 
and Russian Poland also likely to be realized 
(c) The Ruthenians of Galicia, 4 million 
strong, desire to join a Russian -Ukrainian 
state of independent character. Their fate 
doubtful, (d) The Slovenes of Styria and 
Carniola, number 1% million, with Slav 
(101) 



learnings, would probably be willing to join 
a Jugo-Slav state, --(e) The Italians in the 
Adriatic region wish to join the national 
kingdom of Italy and will probably succeed 
in part at least, (f) Austria proper con- 
tains 10 million Germans out of 29 million 
population. These may join a new German 
liberal national state. 
3. Conflict and discontented races under 
Hungarian domination. Out of population 
of 21. million, only 10 million Magyars and 
2 million Germans. Remainder are Slovaks, 
Transylvanian-Rumanians, Serb o-Cr oats and 
scattered races. Desires of most of these 
people for nationalism or at least national 
self-determination and autonomy, (a) The 
Slovaks wish to join a Czecho-Slovak 
national republic or liberal monarchy and 
the Rumanians to become part of Rumania, 
(b) Serbo-Croats somewhat divided by 
differences of tradition and religion into 
Austrian and Serbian Jugo-Slavic parties. 
They number 5% million in southwest 
Slavonia, Croatia, Bosnia, Dalmatia and 
Herzegovina. Probable realization of par- 
tial nationalism after the war. 

(4) The rulers of Austria-Hungary since 1848. The 
Emperor Francis Joseph (1848-1916) and his long 
and troubled reign. His unifying influence and 
personal popularity. Little observable change in the 
internal situation in Austria-Hungary caused by his 
death. Present ruler Francis Joseph I (1916 ). 

(5) The effect of the World War on Austria-Hungary 
likely to be revolutionary on account of the demand 
of the United States and of the Allies for radical 
changes in favor of national freedom and self- 
determination. Important movements already under 
way towards this end. 

(102) 



The Czecho-Slovak movement and its 
progress inside and outside of Austria- 
Hungary. Negative attitude of Bohemians 
and Moravians toward the World War and 
their wholesale desertion to Russia and 
Italy. The formation of Czecho-Slovak 
national committees and organization of 
Czecho-Slovak armies in allied countries. 
The operation of the Czecho-Slovaks in 
Russia and their successes against the 
the Bolsheviki and their German allies. Rec- 
ognition of the Czecho-Slovaks by the 
Allies and by the United States. Assured 
future of Czecho-Slovak nationalism. 
The Jugo-Slavic movement not so well 
organized as the Czecho-Slovak on account 
of differences among Croats and Serbs. Its 
dependence on Serbian restoration ior 
definite expression and future development. 
Austrian pre-war plans for the organization 
of a Serbo-Croat division of Austria- 
Hungary not acceptable to the Serbain 
national element. The Serbo-Croat desire 
for seacoast in conflict to some extent with 
the policy of Italian Irredentism. 
The Transylvanian-Rumanian movement 
little known outside of Transylvania and 
Rumania but nevertheless strongly existent. 
Effort of Rumania to conquer and annex 
Transylvania foredoomed to failure and a 
strategical blunder taken advantage of by 
the able German general, von Mackensen. 
Probable realization by Rumania and 
Transylvania of union after the war. 
The Poles and Ruthenians of Galicia, in- 
fluenced by danger of conquest and annex- 
ation to autocratic Russia, at first supported 
the Austrain -Hungarian war party. Now, 
however, they desire national affiliation 
with a greater Poland and a new Ukrainian- 

(103) 



Russian. The difficulty or reorganizing 
Russia is in the way of Ruthenian hopes. 

(6) Summary and conclusions: The character of the 
Dual Monarchy is so complex that it will be a dif- 
ficult problem for the Peace Congress to settle 
what will be done in regard to the various races 
and nations composing it. The questions involved 
are being carefully studied and prepared for by the 
governments of the various countries but there are 
wide differences of opinion as to what should be 
done. 

Study and Reading References. 

Hayes, Political and Social History, II, 426-434. 
Hazen, Europe since 1815, ch. xvii. 

, Modern European History, ch. xxiv. 

Holt and Chilton, History of Europe, 1862-1914, 261-263, 425- 

434. 
Schapiro, Modern and Contemporary History, ch. xvi. 
War Cyclopedia, articles on Austria-Hungary, Czecho-Slovaks, 

Jugo-Slavs, etc. 

Study Problems. 

(1) Show why Austria-Hungary is a dynastic state 
rather than a national state and how she became 
so? 

(2) Explain the character and organization of the gov- 
ernment of the Dual Monarchy. Which part is 
more 'liberal and how is the difference illustrated? 

(3) What problems of democratic and national char- 
acter exist in (a) the Austrian Empire and (b) 
the Hungarian monarchy? 

(4) Comment on Czecho-Slovak nationalism and its 
historic justification and recent progress. 

(5) How is the Jugo-Slav movement complicated by 
internal and external factors? 

(6) What seems to be the political destiny of (a) the 
Ruthenians; (b) the Transylvanians ; (c) the Poles; 
(d) the Austrian Italians. 

(104) 



XXI. Russia and the Slavic Issues of the War. 

(1) Eussia was an autocratic state composed of a hete- 
rogenous mass of undeveloped peoples dominated 
by the bureaucracy, the church and landed aristo- 
cracy. 

(2) Influence of the national movement expressed in 
the adoption by the reactionaries of the policy of 
Kussification and the Pan-Slavic movement. 

(3) Eeactionary types of rulers in the tsars Nicholas I 
(1825-1855) and Alexander III (1881-1894), Pobe- 
donostsev, tutor of Nicholas II and Procurator of 
the Holy Synod, and Plehve the head of the Secret 
Police under Nicholas II (1894-1917). 

(4) Reactionary measures in the exclusion of other 
languages from the schools, hampering the labors 
of all non-orthodox churches, elimination of non- 
Russians from government offices, suppression of 
separate governments, like Finland, removal of 
Jews to the Pale and their systematic massacre. 

(5) Beyond the borders of Russia the Pan Slavists 
would extend Russian influence into Asia, interfere 
in the interests of the Slavs of Germany and Aus- 
tria-Hungary and further the plans of the Slavic 
Balkan states in the extension of their territories 
to the prejudice of Teutonic and Turkish influences. 

(6) The Industrial Revolution and the beginnings of 
Democratic revolt. 

1. Witte, the father of Russian industrial de- 
velopment through attraction of foreign cap- 
ital and the establishment of protective 
tariff. Rapid expansion of means of trans- 
portation and fostering of infant indus- 
tries developed rapidly increasing industrial 
classes and furthered the movement for 
colonial expansion in Asia. His program 
of social legislation led finally to his dis- 
missal. 

2. New conditions developed strong influ- 
ences hostile to autocracy. Landed classes 

(105) 



opposed to the favors shown industrial 
workers. Wage earners influenced by 
Marxian ideas. Enlarged middle classes 
stirred by liberalism. Minor nationalities 
opposed to Russification. 

(7) The revolutionary movement of 1905. 

1. The distress arising from the Russo-Japan- 
ese war crystallized the opposition to the 
old regime into active revolt. Rioting and 
armed outbreaks throughout the empire 
culminated in a general strike. This led 
to the establishment of the Duma (Oct. 
1905) together with the dismissal of the re- 
actionary ministers. 

2. Difficulties of the new movement. Actual 
ignorance of the great mass of the popula- 
tion. Varying programs of the different 
revolutionary elements. Development of a 
combined reactionary movement in the 
"Union of the Russian People." Loyalty 
of the army to the dynasty. 

(8) The Dumas and their struggles for control. 

1. According to proclamation of Oct. 30, 1905, 
no law was to be valid without consent of 
Duma. In December universal suffrage 
granted. In October decree of individual 
liberties had been guaranteed. 

2. The reaction. Foreign loan gave oppor- 
tunity for moderate reaction. Bicameral 
system adopted in 1906 with Council of 
Empire, an appointive body, as the upper 
house. Army, navy and foreign affairs un- 
der sole control of the Tsar. Finances 
under control of imperial minister. Budg- 
ets of preceding year to hold in case of 
failure. The Duma not to discuss funda- 
mental laws of the empire. Stolypin, a 
moderate reactionary becomes prime minis- 
ter. 

(106) 



3. The first Duma raised the question of a 
responsible ministry and refused to admit 
the government's position. The Cadets 
(C. D.— Constitutional Democrat) withdrew 
and signed the Viborg Manifesto. First 
Duma dissolved. 

4. The second Duma largely like first in spite 
of attempt by government to influence elec- 
tions. Cadets having been practically 
eliminated, Social Democrats maintained 
a resolute opposition to Stolypin's moder- 
ate reforms and second Duma was dis- 
solved in June, 1907. 

5. Tsar then completely changed the electoral 
law and the third Duma represented the 
wishes of the government. Conservative 
and Pan-Slavic groups, composed largely 
of landed class, in control. A consultative 
chamber. 

6. Stolypin was then able to complete the 
process of elimination of the revolutionary 
p.arty which he had begun in 1905. Ca- 
dets, Social Democrats and Social Revolu- 
tionaries all imprisoned or exiled to Si- 
beria. 

7. In spite of reaction the third Duma ac- 
complished some small reforms in the land 
system, education, administration of jus- 
tice and workingmen's compensation. But 
it supported the policy of Russification 
and the development of the navy. 

8. The fourth Duma in 1912 very similar to 
the third and equilibrium seemed to have 
been reached in the form of "a consti- 
tutional monarchy under an autocratic 
tsar." Pan-Slavism the great cohesive 
force. 

(9) The outbreak of the War. Tsar Nicholas pro- 
claimed his desire to aid the Serbs and foresaw the 
(107) 



union of all the Slavs with Russia. Thoroughly 
Pan-Slavic concept. How Russia reacted to the 
war. 

1. All parties rallied to the support of the 
government except the extreme Marxian 
Socialists — Bolsheviki. In a long procla- 
mation to the Social Democrats the leader 
of the moderate Marxians in Russia, Plekh- 
anov, exhorted them to stand by the 
fatherland against the German danger. 

2. Growing German influence in the govern- 
ment noticed by the Russian people. Dis- 
asters of 1916 brought the general dis- 
content to a head. Inefficiency and mis- 
management could not account for all the 
troubles which beset the Russian armies 
and made failures to their campaigns. 

3. Increasing influence of the Cadets with 
their strong nationalistic program. Out- 
break of revolution and abdication of Tsar 
Nicholas II (Mar. 19, 1917). Cadets come 
into power. Plan for republic. 

4. The provisional government under Kerensky 
stands for prosecution of the war; gov- 
ernment control of commerce and industry 
for the war period; and full parliamentary 
government. It failed to satisfy the peas- 
ants on the one hand or the city artisans on 
the other as its plans were not revolution- 
ary enough. Adherence to the Pan-Slavic 
ideal detested especially. 

5. Result of popular discontent was the over- 
throw of the Kerensky government by the 
Workingmen's and Soldiers Committees 
which had failed in their attempt to get 
an international conference on the ques- 
tions of peace. 

6. Second revolutionary movement led by 
agents like Lenine and Trotsky who were 

(108) 



possibly supported by German money. Prep- 
aration for this movement had been go- 
ing on since the opening of hostilities 
both in and out of Russia. This move- 
ment (the Bolsheviki movement) found its 
culmination in the Brest-Litovsk Treaty 
(Mar. 3, 1918). German aggression. 
7. Recent conditions in Russia. German oc- 
cupation and control opposed by Cadets, 
Czecho-Slovak army and, as yet, small al- 
lied forces. Alliance of Germany and Bol- 
sheviki due to failure of latter to accom- 
plish their ideal of extreme Marxism. 
Reign of terror now in progress. Future 
outlook along lines of moderate revolution- 
ary reconstruction as suggested by Plekh- 
anov. 

(10) The dismemberment of Russia. Development of 
minor nationalities. 

1. Poland. Formerly a powerful kingdom 
with large territory now mostly controlled 
by Russia. The grant and withdrawal of 
the constitution of Alexander I. Incorpora- 
tion of Poland . into Russian empire by 
tsar Alexander II after Polish national in- 
surrection of 1863. 

2. Russian Poland with a population of 
7,500,000 a fairly compact and homoge- 
neous submerged nation. Proud of sepa- 
rate language and literature. Roman Cath- 
olic in religion, and ambitious to reestab- 
lish political independence. Hatred of Rus- 
sians and of Jews. Latter complicate the 
Polish national problem as they number 
over a million. 

3. Alexander Ill's effort to Russify Poland by 
requiring Russian language in schools, ex- 
cluding Poles from government offices, and 
forbidding Polish land to be sold to non- 

(109) 



Russians. This policy continued by Nich- 
olas II. Riots in Poland in 1905. Polish 
representation in the Duma cut from 37 to 
14 by law of 1907. Zemstvo law of 1911 
aimed against Poles. 

4. Agitation in 1912 to cut off part of Polish 
territory inhabited largely by Little Rus- 
sians. Change of policy after beginning 
of war. Grand Duke Nicholas issues mani- 
festo promising restoration of Poland as a 
self governing nation "under the scepter 
of the Russian emperor, free in faith and 
in language." 

5. Germany also bids for Polish support by 
joint proclamation of the two Teutonic 
emperors (Nov. 5, 1916) solemnly guaran- 
teeing the reestablishment of the King- 
dom of Poland. No evidence of this be- 
ing put into effect until Sept. 1917. Ru- 
mors of a German king for Poland, also 
of partition of Russian Poland to the ad- 
vantage of Germany and Austria. Part 
of historic Poland given to the Ukraine by 
the Brest-Litovsk treaty. Little hope for 
Polish nationalism under Teutonic auspices. 

6. Provisional government of the Russian re- 
public has promised independence of Po- 
land as it is opposed to Russiflcation. The 
Allies and the United States intend to 
create a free Poland. (See Appendix A 
and B.). Future of the Polish nation in- 
volved in the outcome of the war. 

7. Finland. Grand Duchy belonging to the 
Russian empire. Population 3,250,000. 
Taken from Sweden in 1809 and given 
separate constitution. Protestant Lutheran 
in religion. After 1899 the Russian autoc- 
racy sought to break down Finnish na- 
tionalism and autonomy. Strong national 
resistance among Finns. Restoration of 

' (HO) 



constitution in 1905. Recognition of 
Finnish nationalism and guarantee op 
Finnish national independence by the 
present revolutionary government of Rus- 
sia. Finnish-German alliance. Outlook 
for Finnish nationalism still good. 
8. Ukraine populated by 25,000,000 Little 
. Russians also desires national existence. 
Alexander III endeavors to suppress Lit- 
tle Russian dialect. This causes national 
resentment and starts a movement for 
separation. Collapse in Russia in 1916 gave 
opportunity for this to be carried out and 
a separate treaty arranged with the 
Ukraine. Germany now attempting to 
control the great agricultural and mineral 
resources of the country. Outlook for fu- 
ture involves a more or less close unioii 
with Russia. 

Study and Reading References. 

Hayes, Political and Social History, II, ch. xxv. 
Hazen, Europe since 1815, see under "Russia." 

, Modern European History, see under "Russia." 

Holt and Chilton, History of Europe, 1862-1914, under 

"Russia." 
Schapiro, Modern and Contemporary History, chs. xxi, xxii, 

xxiii. 
Seignobos, Europe since 1814, ch. xix. 
War Cyclopedia, articles on Finland, Poland, Russia, Ukraine, 

etc. 

Study Problems. 

(1) What sort of a state was Russia at the opening of 
the war? How was it dominated? How did Rus- 
sian nationalism tend to express itself as to external 
and internal policies? 

(2) Comment on the characters of the Russian Tsars 
during the last century? Why are their characters 
more important that those of the English or Italian 
kings? 

(ill) ' 



(3) Discuss the origin and progress of the Industrial 
Eevolntion in Russia. How did it help bring on 
political revolution? 

(4) Describe briefly (a) the revolutionary movement 
of 1905; (b)' the history of the four Dumas. 

(5) Discuss the attitude taken by the Russian people 
toward the war. What ruined tsarism and autoc- 
racy and what changes took place in 1917? 

(6) How has the last great revolution progressed in 
Russia and what seems to be the prospect for the 
future? Discuss party conditions in Russia. 

(7) Discuss the question of separate nationalism in 
connection with (a) Finland; (b) Russian Poland; 
and (c) the Ukraine. 

XXII. Issues of the War in Regard to Turkey and Her 

Empire. 

(1) The Ottoman Empire in Europe and Western Asia. 
Turning point of expansion in 1683, failure to cap- 
ture Vienna. Subsequent Austrian and Russian acr- 
grandizement at Turkish expense in the later 17th 
and during the 18th centuries. Turkey during the 
era of Napoleon threatened by the European pow- 
ers but saved by western European wars. 

(2) The Ottoman Empire after 1815 and the revolt of 
the Christian states of the Balkan region — Serbs, 
Bulgars, Rumanians, Greeks and Albanians. Par- 
tial failure of these national movements due to lack 
of European aid save in the case of Greece. Russia 
extends most sympathy and protection on account 
of Slav affiliations. The anti-Slav attitude of West- 
ern Europe and the Crimean War (1854-1856), a 
temporary check to Russian advance. 

(3) The Near East under the influence of Great Brit- 
ain and France as allies and friends of Turkey 
(1855-1878). Renewal of Russian interference in 
the Balkans. Serious disorders in the Ottoman 
Empire with massacres of Christians of the small 
nations, especially Bulgaria ("the Bulgarian atroc- 

(112) 



ities"). Bad condition of the Ottoman Government 
at the accession of the Sultan Abdul Hamid IT 
(1876-1909). 

(4) The reactionary regime of Adbul Hamid IT begins 
with the Russo-Turkish War (1877-1878). Turkish 
defeat and the treaty of San Stefano. Opposition 
of Great Britain and of Austria-Hungary to this 
treaty and its modification, in favor of Turkey, at 
Berlin (1878). Partial dismemberment of the Turk- 
ish Empire by new arrangements in regard to 
Bosnia-Herzegovina, Cyprus, Bulgaria, Rumania, 
Serbia, Montenegro, and Greece. Plans on paper 
for the reform of Turkey not carried out. 

(5) Character of Turkish government under the re- 
actionary and tyrannical Abdul Hamid II. The 
Sultan a hard worker who attempted to cover the 
smallest details of government himself, thus causing 
delay. Suspicious of all foreign innovations 
through _ ignorance (confusion of "dynamos" with 
"dynamite"). His governmental policies in de- 
tail. 

1. Gradual elimination of the control of the 
Sublime Porte or group of ministers in 
favor of the personal rule of the Sultan. 
Existence, however, of a strong palace 
clique who influence the appointment of 
officials. Pay of officials always in arrears 
and graft and corruption necessary and 
carefully arranged for from highest to 
lowest. A personal and palace despotism. 

2. Progressive or liberal elements exiled or 
sent to the provinces to prevent criticism 
or revolution. Large powers given to 
local governors so that extensive dis- 
tricts become almost independent of cen- 
tary control, as in the case of Macedonia, 
Kurdistan, Arabia. 

3. Moslems freely conscripted into the Turk- 
ish army in arbitrary way. Christian pop- 
ulation, particularly Armenian and Greek, 

(113) 



suffers from, lack of justice and frequent 
violence. Foreigners allowed their own 
laws administered by diplomatic and con- 
sular representatives according to the 
capitulations, or agreements made by 
Turkey with outside nations. France ex- 
ercises special rights of protection over 
Latin Christians and Russia over Greek 
Christians of the native population. 
4. Turkish industry largely domestic. The 
trade and business mainly in the hands of 
Armenians, Greeks, and foreigners. In- 
ternal resources of Turkey little developed 
on account of lack of transportation and 
good order. The Bagdad Railway an en- 
tering wedge of more advanced economic 
development under German control. 

5. Position of Sultan as Caliph, or successor 
of Mohammed and head of Islam, assumed 
in 16th century. Resentment at the loss 
of Turkish Empire in Europe leads to 
plan of Pan-Islam or general union of the 
Mohammedan world. The aid of mendi- 
cant brotherhoods and of the powerful 
Sanusiyah, secret society enlisted. Rail- 
way built to Medina to control the annual 
pilgrimage to Mecca. Pan-Islamic fervor 
finds expression in attack on Christian 
Armenians. This considered safe owing to 
the remoteness of Armenia and the apathy 
of the western powers. 

6. The Young Turk Revolutionary Party 
plans to overthrow Abdul Hamid at the 
first opportunity. Origin of this party in 
liberal ideas of 19th century brought into 
Turkey by the French and promoted by 
American missions and schools. The con- 
stitution of 1876 was granted by Abdul 
Hamid II to conciliate outside liberal opin- 
ion. It was never effective. 

(114) 



(6) The Young Turk Revolution and the overthrow of 
Abdul Hamid II (1908-1909). Rapid growth after 
1900 of the Young Turk liberal party outside of 
Turkey. Organization of a committee of Union and 
Progress. The movement assisted by Armenian 
revolutionary societies and definite plans made for 
a revolution. Steps in the revolution. 

1. Discovery of revolutionary plot by Turk- 
ish government forces the issue. Revolu- 
tionary opinions and sympathies in the 
army influence Abdul Hamid to resurrect 
the old constitution of .1876. Effort to 
stem the Young Turk movement and re- 
tain power. 

2. Young Turk Revolution hampered by lack 
of funds and lack of support from all 
powers except Germany. No trained offi- 
cials with liberal ideas. Absence of sym- 
pathy by the Young Turks with other races 
and creeds, especially Greeks, Armenians, 
and Arabs. Their willingness, . however, 
to admit Christians to military and civil 
office. 

3. Liberal ideas among the Turks spread by 
the American missions and schools such 

, as Roberts College, at Constantinople, and 
the Syrian Protestant College, at Beirut. 
Plans made for a general system of sec- 
ondary and higher education amongst the 
Turks useless for lack of funds to carry 
them out. 
4. Abdul Hamid 's efforts to seize and retain 
control by means of the reactionary ele- 
ments, strait-laced Moslems, and the Palace 
group, end with exile to Salonika. Op- 
portunity given for the Young Turks to 
carry out an attack on the Armenians of 
Cilicia. The failure of the government 
to punish the culprits, gives the Christians 

(115) 



their first hint of the Young Turk's pol- 
icy of Ottomanisation. 
5. Failure of the Young Turks to keep order 
in Europe leads to coalition of Balkan 
powers against them (Balkan Wars, 1912- 
1913). Later a falling out of the allies 
over the spoils enabled the Turks to re- 
cover Adrianople. The loss of several of the 
Turkish possessions (Tripoli, Rhodes and 
Dodecanese) throws the control of affairs 
into the hands of radical and pro- 
German leaders. Another result is the per- 
mitting of maltreatment of Armenians by 
Kurds, until Eussia forced the granting of 
reforms promised by the Congress of Berlin. 

(7) The German alliance and the outbreak of the war. 
Friendly relations with Germany begun under Ab- 
dul Hamid. Desire of William II to pose as the 
protector of Moslems throughout the world. The 
concrete results in the Bagdad Railway concession. 
Germany and the Young Turks. 

1. Germany the first to recognize the Young 
Turk Revolution and Germans called in to 
reorganize and train the new army. Young 
Turks, like Enver Bey, petted and flattered 
by Potsdam. A number of old German 
warships sold to the Turks for their navy 
At the outbreak of war Turkey pledged 
to Germany and only waited a favorable 
opportunity to declare war against the 
Entente. 

2. Arrival of the German warships, Goeben 
and Breslau, at Constantinople made pos- 
sible the forcing of the hand of the more 
reluctant elements in Turkey. The Ger- 
man, connection reinforced the Ottomanisa- 
tion policy. Outbreak of war brought a 
climax to the Armenian problem by giv- 
ing opportunity to carry out the policy of 

(116) 



extermination by massacre and deporta- 
tion. Nearly one million Armenians wiped 
out and remainder kept alive largely 
through efforts of American missionaries 
and other Americans. 

(8) The breakup of Turkey's Asiatic Empire conse- 
quent on her alliance with Germany and Austria. 
British. French and Russian influences in the east 
directed against Turkey. Steps in the process. 

1. Proclamation of independence and the erec- 
tion of the kingdom of Hedjaz, headed by 
the sheriff of Mecca, in 1917, a blow at the 
pretensions of the Sultan as Caliph and an 
attempt at a national Arabian movement. 
It is assisted by the British seizure of 
Bagdad and the recognition by the Entente 
powers of the new Arabia. 

2. Palestine and Zionism. Zionism the result 
of national movement on the part of the 
Jews. How it affected the Jews through- 
out the world. Colonization begun in the 
80 's but the movement did not become 
vital until the work of Herzl in 1896. The 
complete rejuvenation of Palestine and the 
return of as many Jews as possible are 
the plans made. Occupation of parts of 
Palestine in 1917 gave force to the idea 
that England led the Entente in recogniz- 
ing claims of Jews. Arrangements al- 
ready in existence for establishing a 
Jewish state under allied suzerainty. 

(9) Problems of settlement. The establishment of the 
Zionistic state a difficult problem. Arrangements 
necessary for the separation of the Arabic portion 
of the Empire from Turkish control either 
through extension of the kingdom of Hedjaz or 
otherwise. Establishment of an effective control 
over the Kurds and the rescue of the Armenians 
from their clutches. The solution of the control of 

(117) 



the Straits. The rights of the Greeks to the Aegean 
littoral. Recognition and adjustment of Italian 
claims to southeast Asia Minor, of France to Syria 
and of England to Mesopotamia. The determina- 
tion of the limits of the future Turkish state. The 
proposal of President Wilson to restrict Turkish 
rule to Turkish nationality. 

Study and Reading References. 

Hayes, Political and Social History, II, ch. xxvi. 
Hazen, Europe since 1815, ch. xxviii. 

, Modern European History, ch. xxiii. 

Schapiro, Modern and Contemporary History, ch. xxvii. 
Seignobos, Europe Since 181J h ch: xx. 

Study Problems. 

(1) Account for the decay of Turkish power during the 
nineteenth century? What kept it from complete 
disappearance? 

(2) Discuss the treatment of non-Moslem peoples in 
Turkey before the Revolution of 1908. What 
changes were brought about by the Revolution? 

(3) Discuss the development of liberal ideas in the 
Turkish Empire. What were the forces aiding and 
hindering their development? 

(4) On what basis could the Pan Islamic movement be 
headed by Turkey? How far was it successful? 
Account for the limitations in its success. 

(5) What national problems are involved in the Asi- 
atic portion of the Empire? How far are they in- 
fluenced by outside forces? What is their present 
status ? 

(6) Discuss the political and economic importance of 
Constantinople. What difficulties does it present in 
the settlement of the present war? 

XXIII. How America Came Into the War. 

(1) The international position of the United States at 
the beginning of the twentieth century. Her for- 
eign policy the result of a century of evolution. In- 
(118) 



fiuence of her geographical position upon the forma- 
tion and early development of her conception of 
international affairs. 

(2) The tradition of isolation : its origin — the neutral- 
ity policy adopted in Washington's administration. 
Justification of neutrality at that time. "Neutral- 
ity" and "isolation" not identical. Isolation the 
expression of a half truth only. 

(3) The hegemony of the United States on the Ameri- 
can continent. Its origin after the conclusion of 
the Napoleonic wars. Its announcement to the 
world in 1823. Its development and recognition 
since. Its interpretation and influence on world 
policy in the early years of the twentieth century. 

(4) The traditional American attitude as to the in- 
violability of private property in time of war. The 
declaration of London, (1901), as to the rights of 
neutrals. The British justification for refusing its 
ratification. 

(5) America and the belligerents in 1914 and before. 

1. Summary statement of her previous rela- 
tions with each of the principal belliger- 
ents. Large number of nineteenth century 
disputes with Great Britain compared with 
the brevity of her diplomatic intercourse 
with Germany. 

2. Growing friendship of the United States 
with Great Britain contrasted with a 
growing distrust of Germany in the early 
years of the twentieth century. Reasons 
for this change. 

(6) Opening of the war. American neutrality. The 
"Belgian atrocities" and American public opinion. 
German propaganda in America and its almost 
complete failure. 

(7) The question of contraband and the doctrine of 
continuous voyages. 

1. The American application of the doctrine 
during the Civil War and the British appli- 
(119) 



cation in 1914. Statement of the British 
case. 
2. The German imperial decree of Jan. 25, 
1915, in regard to food stuffs. English 
seizure of the Wilhelmina as a test case. 
Comparative unimportance of the dispute 
in so far as it affected the friendly re- 
lations between the British and American 
people. 

(8) Beginning of the submarine controversy. 

1. German imperial decree of Feb. 4, 1915, 
making the British position as to naval war- 
fare the excuse for the adoption by her of 
under sea campaign. 

2. The American note of Feb. 10, 1915, and 
the German reply of Feb. 16. Submarine 
activities during the spring of 1915 cul- 
minating in the sinking of the Lusitania and 
loss of many American lives. 

(9) The dispute over the munitions trade. 

1. Protest of the German imperial government 
of Dec. 15, 1914, and her complaint in the 
note of Feb. 16, 1915. Statement of the case 
by Secretary Bryan. 

2. Growth of bitterness in Germany against 
United States. The German note of April 
4, 1915, and the American reply of April 21. 
The Austrian protest of June 29, 1915, and 
the American reply of Aug. 12. The law and 
the question of right in the case. 

(10) Diplomatic contest over submarine warfare after 
the sinking of the Lusitania. 

1. American protest of May 13, 1915, and the 
German answer of May 28. Later dis- 
patches between the two governments failed 
to produce an agreement. 

(120) 



2. American declaration of principles regard- 
ing submarine warfare Jan. 18, 1916. State- 
ment of German position Mar. 8. Con- 
tinuation of unrestricted submarine war- 
fare. American ultimatum of April 18, 1916. 
German promise of May 4 to meet the de- 
mands of the United States. This promise 
only partially kept during the next few 
months. 

(11) The German spy system and practice of sabotage 
in America. 

1. Austrian ambassador Dumba's secret pro- 
posal for the destruction of American in- 
dustrial plants, Aug. 1915. The illegal 
activities of Captains Boy-Ed and von 
Papen, leading to the demand for their 
recall. 

2. German imperial government issues secret 
orders to Ambassador Bernstorff to promote 
sabotage, Jan. 1916. The von Egel papers. 
German spies and bribery in American 
official circles and German control of 
American newspapers. 

(12) German intrigues against American peace. Cali- 
fornia as a base to incite India to rebellion. In- 
trigues in South America against the United States. 
The plot in Mexico as revealed in the Zimmermann 
note. 

(13) Renewal of unrestricted submarine warfare, Jan. 31, 
1917. Severance of diplomatic relations by the 
United States, Feb. 3. Arming of American mer- 
chant vessels, Mar. 1917. The United States de- 
clares war on Germany, April 6, 1917. 

(14) Summary and conclusion. Declaration of war ended 
over two years of disputes between the United 
States and Germany. Fundamental positions of the 
two countries diametrically opposed. German con- 
cept of international rights and her contempt for 

(121) 



the law of nations. Germany becomes a criminal 
among the nations of the world and America is 
forced into the war to defend her honor and the lives 
of her citizens. 

Study and Reading References. 

Harding, Study of the, Great War, ch. viii. 

Hart, ed., America at War, ch. v. 

How the War Came to America, Committee on Public Infor- 
mation, no. 1. 

Fish, American Diplomacy. 

Rogers, America's Case Against Germany. 

Robinson and West, The Foreign Policy of Woodrow Wilson, 
1913-1917. 

Study Problems. 

(1) Discuss the Monroe Doctrine as generally under- 
stood in the United States during recent years. 

(2) Comment on the English and German attitudes to- 
wards the United States in 1898. 

(3) Discuss the effect of British sea power upon 
American commerce in 1914 and 1915. 

(4) Comment on the case of the "William P. Frye" and 
the resulting negotiations with Germany. 

(5) Write on pro-Germanism in America during the 
early part of the world war. 

(6) Show what results followed on German submarine 
warfare in connection with the relations of German} 7 
and the United States. 

XXIV. The Meaning of the War to America. 

(1) The United States not forced into the war simply 
by Germany's wanton attack on lives and property 
of American citizens. Fundamental American in- 
terests and ideals are involved. United States 
fighting for more than the vindication of national 
honor against German spies, propaganda, submarine 
attacks, Zimmerman note and other things. 

(2) Evidences that the traditional foreign policy of 
isolation on the part of the United States was no 

(122) 



longer profitable given in the earliest stages of the 
war. Supported by the following considerations. 

1. In general neutrality in this war has proven 
almost impossible. "Neutrality" a recent 
concept dating from the wars of the French 
Revolution and of Napoleon. The In- 
dustrial Revolution with its world markets, 
improved transportation and communication 
involves interests of every country in every 
important war. Neutrality a narrowly sel- 
fish nationalistic policy, inconsistent with 
modern internationalistic thinking. 

2. In particular United States a different 
nation since Washington and Monroe 
formulated a policy of isolation. United 
States transformed from small nation, weak 
in men and wealth to strongest on earth. 
Since 1865 has changed from agricultural, 
raw material producing nation to industrial 

one. Growth of cities and wealthy popu- 
lation. World supply of raw materials vital 
to our manufactures. Also world outlet, 
vital to our farmers and manufacturers for 
surplus products. United States thus swept 
into current of world problems. 

3. Already before 1914 United States was 
taking her place as a world power and 
abandoning traditional isolation. Acquisi- 
tion of the Philippines involved us in Far 
Eastern problems. John Hay and the Open 
Door in China. Possible clash of interests 
with Japan. United States delegates at 
Algeciras conference. Prominent part taken 
by United States at the Hague conferences. 
Panama Canal a world highway. 

(3) The increasing importance of the Monroe Doctrine 
to the United States and the necessity of securing 
its general acceptance by the world has been brought 
home to us. Growing importance of South American 

(123) 



markets, Panama canal and Porto Rico all demand 
American domination of the Caribbean. 

1. " National imperialism," meaning colonial 
expansion and exploitation of undeveloped 
parts of earth, is directly contrary to prin- 
ciples of the Monroe Doctrine. Mexico, 
Central and much of South America richer 
fields for European exploitation than 
Africa or most of Asia on account of cli- 
mate, fertility, accessibility, and mineral 
resources and labor. 

2. Germany's national imperialism especially 
dangerous. Mesopotamia and South Amer- 
ica most tempting fields open to her. 
Germany's early attitude toward Monroe 
Doctrine contemptuous. Bismarck's char- 
acterisation of it as ''an international 
impertinence." Attempted German inter- 
ference in yenezuela in 1902. Probable 
interference with our purchase of Danish 
West Indies. The Zimmerman note in 
regard to Mexico. Germany's economic 
penetration in Central and South America. 
German colonists in Brazil. 

3. England and France satisfied with their 
existing fields of expansion. England has 
consistently supported Monroe Doctrine and, 
until recently, her navy was the chief 
guarantee of policy. Defeat of Great 
Britain in this war would have compelled 
the United States to become a militaristic 
nation or abandon the Monroe Doctrine. 

(4) The true nature of German "Kultur" revealed to us 
by the progress of the war. Particularly by 

1. The attack on Serbia, the violation of the 
neutrality of Luxemburg and Belgium, 
showing Germany's utter disregard for the 
ideal of nationality, for the rights of weaker 
nations and for treaty obligations. 
(124) 



2. German methods of warfare, which showed 
a contempt for humanity and decency, as 
manifested in the atrocities perpetrated in 
Belgium and northern France, massacres in 
Armenia, sinking of the Lusitania, use of 
poison gas and other barbarities. 

(5) United States convinced that this is a war of democ- 
racy against autocracy, of right against might, of 
civilisation against barbarism. The Russian revolu- 
tion destroyed Russian autocracy and Amercians 
realize now the essential democracy of England 
and France. Prime Minister Lloyd George voices 
allied aims which we can heartily accept. The Ger- 
man rape of Russia and Rumania exposes complete- 
ly the autocratic aim of her government. The issues 
of the war clearly revealed in the speeches of Presi- 
dent Wilson as 

1. " Shall the military power of any nation or 
group of nations be suffered to determine 
the fortunes of people over whom they have 
no right to rule except the right of force." 

2. "Shall strong nations be free to wrong 
weak nations and make them subject to 
their purpose and interest." 

3. "Shall peoples be ruled and dominated, 
even in their own internal affairs, by 
arbitrary and irresponsible force or at their 
own will and force." 

4. "Shall there be a common standard of right 
and privilege for all nations or shall the 
strong do as they will and the weak suffer 
without redress." 

(6) Summary and conclusion. The meaning of the war 
to the United states is that a German world would 
be an intolerable one for Americans to live in. It is 
no longer possible for the United States to hold 
aloof from the rest of the world. German domi- 
nation would endanger our material interests and 

(125) 



compel us to arm ourselves for their defense, Ger- 
many repudiates the most cherished American 
ideals of nationality and democracy. The United 
States must do her full share in destroying the 
German menace and insure against another war. 
"The United States is prepared to assume its full 
share of responsibility for the maintenance of com- 
mon covenants and understandings upon which 
peace must henceforth rest." (President Wilson). 

Study and Reading References. 

Harding, Study of the Great War, ch. viii, x. 

How the War Came to America, Committee on Public Infor- 
mation, no. 1. 

War Labor and Peace: Some Recent addresses and Writings 
of the President, Committee on Public Information, no. 9. 

War Information Series, nos. 101, 102, 105, 108, 112, 114, 115. 

Loyalty Leaflets, nos. 203, 205. 

Study Problems. 

(1) Why is neutrality a dubious policy to-day? Is 
neutrality an obligation or a right? 

(2) Why did Washington insist on a policy of neutrality 
and isolation for the United States? Do the same 
reasons apply today? Would Washington regard the 
entrance of the United States into a League of 
Nations as "an entangling alliance?" 

(3) Has the United States been nationally imperialistic 
in the past ? Must it be so in the future ? How can 
she avoid it ? 

(4) In what way is the Monroe Doctrine involved in the 
causes of the present war? How would the triumph 
of Germany affect it? 

(5) Why did not the United States see the real issues of 
the war in 1914? 

(6) Explain clearly how German ideals and practices 
attack American ideals directly. 



(126) 



XXV. War Aims, Peace Proposals and the General 
Issues of the World War. 

(1) Importance of understanding and appreciating the 
war aims and issues involved in the "World AYar. 
The positive and negative aspects of war aims. 
Offensive war by Germany and her allies against 
British, Latin and Slav Europe. Injuries and in- 
sults to the * United States and other neutrals caus- 
ing them to become opponents of Germany. 

(2) Three aspects to any discussion of war aims, peace 
proposals, and general issues — (a) what Germany 
and her friends have expected from the war; (b) 
proposals of peace favorable to Germany by herself 
and others; (c) allied and United States war aims 
and ideas as to the settlement of the war. 

(3) German war aims and proposals of peace all based 
on German victory or gain. Effort to escape 
punishment or penalties for aggression, crimes and 
injuries which have been committed. Danger of 
a negotiated peace without previous definite accept- 
ance of terms. Necessity of forcing Germany to 
submit to the just terms announced by the Allies. 

(4) Original war aims of Germany and Austria were 
to recover lost hegemony in Europe and to increase 
it by conquest; to strengthen Austria in the Balkan 
region and promote Pan-Germanism in middle Eu- 
rope; to weaken Great Britain and secure colonial 
and commercial advantages; and to humiliate both 
Russia and France. Justified resistance of British, 
Latin and Slav Europe to this Teutonic program. 

(5) The military successes and temporary conquest of 
Germany and her allies in the war a serious danger 
to the world if allowed to yield them peace with 
profit. Danger of the idea, once much talked of, 
of "peace without victory." The grasp of the Teu- 
tonic powers on Belgium, France, Italy, Serbia, 
Montenegro, Rumania, and Russia must be unloosed. 
They must be taught that "war does not pay." 

(127) 



(6) Proposals of peace by conference by Germany and 
her allies at close of 1916 impossible to accept, being 
based on German victory gains which would con- 
firm German militarism as a successful policy. 
Only peace proposals from the Teutonic al- 
lies which would be acceptable would be such as 
acknowledge guilt for the war and promise repa- 
ration, according to the terms laid down by Presi- 
dent Wilson and Prime Minister Lloyd George 
during recent years. (See Appendix A, B.) 

(7) Peace proposals made by Pope Benedict XV in 
August 1915 indefinite and properly ignored. Those 
of August 1917 more definite but impossible of ac- 
ceptance by the Allies on account of compromise 
character. President Wilson's strong criticism of 
the papal proposals and Germany's hypocritical and 
noncommittal reply. Little hope of successful neu- 
tral or non-combatant intervention at this stage of 
the war. The suggestion for peace made by Lord 
Lansdowne in England not acted on. 

(8') Recent peace proposals by Austria-Hungary, of in- 
definite type, to stop the war and start discussion 
of peace terms, emphatically declined by the United 
States and the Allies, who stand firmly for the 
settlement of the war by the submission of Germany 
and her allies to the announced terms of the demo- 
cratic people of Europe and America. 
(9) General and special war aims of the Allies and the 
United States as stated in various speeches, mes- 
sages and other announcements by President Wil- 
son, Prime Minister Lloyd George, the premiers of 
British Dominions and high government officials 
' of France, Italy and other allied countries. 

1. The vindication of the rights of nations to 
liberty and independence against German 
militarism. The vindication of the right 
of humanity against German brutality 
shown in the present war. Making the 
world safe for liberty and democracy against 

(128) 



all forms of violence on the part of undemo- 
cratic states. Agreement on democracy. 

2. The crushing of the German system of 
" combined intrigue and force ... a 
thing withous conscience or honor or capac- 
ity for covenanted peace" and reparation 
of wrongs committed by Germany through 
its rulers and generals. Demand that the 
''German people say to us, through prop- 
erly accredited representatives, that they 
are ready to agree to a covenant based upon 
justice and the reparation of the wrongs 
their rulers have done" (President Wil- 
son). No treaty with militaristic rulers. 

3. Creation of an improved international sys- 
tem which shall include some kind of a 
league or conference of powers on a demo- 
cratic basis to preserve international peace. 
To bring about an absence of selfish and 

narrow nationalism and national designs and 
to do away with secret and crafty diplo- 
macy. Emphasis on League of Nations. 

4. To bring about open covenants of peace to 
the end that there shall be no more secret 
treaties or international understandings but 
that everything shall be told to the public 
and be done in the public view. 

5. To secure general freedom of navigation 
on the sea, both in times of peace and war, 
unless the closing of the sea to commerce 
may be decreed by international action for 
international purposes. The removal, as 
fas as possible, of economic barriers and 
discrimination so that nations are on an 
equality in matters of trade and act to- 
gether for its maintenance. 

6. Reduction of national armament by mutual 
agreement and guarantees to the lowest 
point consistent with domestic safety. The 

(129) 



free open-minded and impartial adjustment 
of colonial claims and difficulties on the 
principle of the interests of the colonial 
population as well as the equitable claims 
of the governments concerned. 

7. Evacuation of all Russian territory and a 
settlement of questions affecting Russia in 
the interests of the Russian people and not 
in the interests of outside powers. Giving of 
Russia "an unhampered and unembarrassed 
opportunity for the independent determi- 
nation of her own political development 
and national policy" (President Wilson). 

8. The evacuation of Belgium, France, Italy, 
Serbia, Montenegro, Rumania, and the rep- 
aration for injuries committed. The recog- 
nition of rights of national self gov- 
ernment on the part of subject peoples in 
Auustria-Hungary under strict guarantees. 
The emancipation from Turkish control of 
nationalities of non-Turk character and 
the opening of the Dardanelles "as a free 
passage to the ships and commerce of all 
nations under international guarantees. " 

9. The erection of an independent Polish state 
to include all territory inhabited by strictly 
Polish population. This state to be as- 
sured a free and secure access to the sea 
and its political and economic independence 
and territorial integrity to be guaranteed by 
international covenant. 

10. Any settlement of the war to be based on 
essential justice and permanent peace. No 
peoples or provinces to be bartered as 
chattels and pawns between sovereignties. 
Territorial settlements to be made in the 
interest and for the benefit of the popula- 
tions concerned and not through expediency. 
National aspirations of well-defined char- 

(130) 



acter to be given all possible satisfaction 
when the war is settled. 

(10) Summary and conclusion: The evolution of thor- 
oughly liberal and democratic war aims on the 
part of the Allies totally discredits the German 
claim of a defensive war. Proposals for peace 
must be based on the principles and definite terms 
enunciated by the Allied leaders and by President 
Wilson. 

Study and Reading References. 

See Topics xvii-xxii for review. 

Conquest and Eultur, Committee on Public Information, no. 5. 

Harding, Study of the Great War, ch. x. 

Hart, Ed., America at War, ch. vii. 

New York Times, Current History of the War, Feb. 1918. 

Stoddard and Prank, The Stakes of the War. 

Toynbee, The New Europe. 

War Cyclopedia, articles under Aims of the United States, 
Peace Overtures, Peace Terms, War Aims, etc. 

War, Laoor and Peace, addresses by President Wilson, Com- 
mittee on Public Information, no. 9. 

Study Problems. 

(1) How should war aims and peace proposals be or- 
ganized and examined so as to discriminate prop- 
erly? Why should German peace proposals be 
looked upon with suspicion? 

(2) What kind of peace proposals have so far been made 
by Germany and Austria-Hungary? Why have 
these proposals been uniformly declined? Who 
else has proposed peace and what was the result? 

(3) Discuss the general and special war aims of the 
United States and the allies. What do you con- 
sider especially important in these terms? What 
guarantee for future peace does President Wilson 
emphasize ? 

(4) What is meant by (a) freedom of the seas; (b) 
fair adjustment of colonial claims; (e) removal of 



(131) 



all economic barriers; (d) well denned national 
aspirations; (e) open covenants of peace. 

APPENDIX A 

War Aims and Peace Terms of the United States as 
Expressed by President Woodrow Wilson. 

I. Program of the world's peace (addressed to Con- 
gress January 8, 1918). "The program of the 
world's peace, therefore, is our program and that 
program the only possible program, as we see it is 
this : 

1. Open covenants of peace,' openly arrived 
at; after which there shall be no private 
international understandings of any kind, 
but diplomacy shall proceed always frankly 
and in the public view. 

2. Absolute freedom of navigation upon the 
seas, outside territorial waters, alike in 
peace and in war, except as the seas may 
be closed in whole or in part by interna- 
tional action for the enforcement of in- 
ternational covenants. 

3. The removal, so far as possible, of all eco- 
nomic barriers and the establishment of 
an equality of trade conditions among all 
the nations consenting to the peace and 
associating themselves for its maintenance. 

4. Adequate guarantees given and taken that 
national armaments will be reduced to the 
lowest point consistent with domestic safety. 

5. A free, open-minded, and absolutely 
impartial adjustment of all colonial claims, 
based upon a strict observance of the prin- 
ciple that in determining all such ques- 
tions of sovereignty the interests of the 
populations concerned must have equal 
weight with the equitable claims of the 
Government whose title is to be determined. 

(132) 



The evacuation of all Russian territory, and 
such a settlement of all questions affecting 
Russia as will secure the best and freest 
co-operation of the other nations of the 
world in obtaining for her an unhampered 
and unembarrassed opportunity for the 
independent determination of her own politi- 
cal development and national policy, and 
assure her of a sincere welcome into the 
society of free nations under institutions 
of her own choosing; and, more than a 
welcome, assistance also of every kind that 
she may need and may herself desire. The 
treatment accorded Russia by her sister 
nations in the months to come will be the 
acid test of their good will, of their com- 
prehension of her needs as distinguished 
from their own interests, and of their in- 
telligent and unselfish sympathy. 
Belgium, the whole world will agree, must 
be evacuated and restored without any 
attempt to limit the sovereignty which she 
enjoys in common with all other free nations. 
No other single act will serve as this will 
serve to restore confidence among the na- 
tions in the laws which they have them- 
selves set and determined for the govern- 
ment of their relations with one another. 
Without this healing act the whole structure 
and validity of international law is forever 
impaired. 

All French territory should be freed and the 
invaded portions restored; and the wrong 
done to France by Prussia in 1871 in the 
matter of Alsace-Lorraine, which has un- 
settled the peace of the world for nearly 
fifty years, should be righted, in order that 
peace may once more be made secure in 
the interest of all. 

(133) 



9. A readjustment of the frontiers of Italy 
should be effected along clearly recognizable 
lines of nationality. 

10. The peoples of Austria-Hungary, whose 
place among the nations we wish to see 

safeguarded and assured, should be accorded 
the freest opportunity of autonomous de- 
velopment. 

11. Rumania, Serbia, and Montenegro should 
be evacuated ; occupied territories restored ; 
Serbia accorded free and secure access to 
the sea; and the relations of the several 
Balkan States to one another determined 
by friendly counsel along historically es- 
tablished lines of allegiance and nationality; 
and international guaranties of the political 
and economic independence and territorial 
integrity of the several Balkan States 
should be entered into. 

12. The Turkish portions of the present Otto- 
man Empire should be assured a secure sov- 
ereignty, but the other nationalities which 
are now under Turkish rule should be 
assured an undoubted security of life and 
an absolutely unmolested opportunity of 
autonomous development, and the Dar- 
danelles should be permanently opened as 
a free passage to the ships and, commerce 
of all nations under international guar- 
anties. 

13. An independent Polish State should be 
erected which should include the territories 
inhabited by indisputably Polish popula- 
tions, which should be assured a free and 
secure access to the sea, and whose political 
and economic independence and territorial 
integrity should be guaranteed by inter- 
national covenant. 

14. A general association of nations must be 

(134) 



formed, under specific covenants, for the 
purpose of affording mutual guaranties of 
political independence and territorial in- 
tegrity to great and small States alike. 

In regard to these essential rectifications of wrong 
and assertions of right we feel ourselves to be intimate 
partners of all the Governments and peoples associated 
together against the imperialists. We cannot be separ- 
ated in interest or divided in purpose. We stand to- 
gether until the end." 

II. Additional points from address to Congress Fer- 
ruary 11, 1918. 

" First, that each part of the final settlement 
must be based upon the essential justice 
of that particular case and upon such ad- 
justments as are most likely to bring a 
peace that will be permanent; 

Second, that peoples and provinces are not to 
be bartered about from sovereignty to sov- 
ereignty as if they were mere chattels and 
pawns in a game, even the great game, now 
forever discredited, of the balance of 
power; but that — 

Third, every territorial settlement involved in 
this war must be made in the interest and 
for the benefit of the populations concerned, 
and not as a part of any mere adjustment 
or compromise of claims amongst rival 
States ; and — 

Fourth, that all well-defined national as- 
pirations shall be accorded the utmost 
satisfaction that can be accorded them 
them without introducing new or perpetuat- 
ing old elements of discord and antagonism 
that would be likely in time to break the 
peace of Europe and consequently of the 
world. 

(135) 



A general peace erected upon such foundations 
can be discussed. Until such a peace can be secured 
we have no choice but to go on. So far as we can 
judge, these principles that we regard as fundamental 
are already everywhere accepted as imperative, except 
among the spokesmen of the military and annexationist 
party in Germany. If they have anywhere else been 
rejected, the objectors have not been sufficiently nu- 
merous or influential to make their voices audible. The 
tragical circumstance is that this one party in Germany 
is apparently willing and able to send millions of men 
to their death to prevent what all the world now sees 
to be just." 

Ill, Additional points from the Address at Mount 
Vernon, July 4, 1918. "These are the ends for 
which the associated peoples of the world are 
fighting and which must be conceded them before 
there can be peace : 

1. The destruction of every arbitrary power 
anywhere that can separately, secretly, 
and of its single choice disturb the peace 
of the world ; or, if it can not be presently 
destroyed, at the least its reduction to 
virtual impotence. 

2. The settlement of every question, whether 
of territory, of sovereignty, of economic 
arrangement, or of political relationship, 
upon the basis of the free acceptance of 
that settlement by the people immediately 
concerned, and not upon the basis of the 
material interests or advantage of any 
other nation or people which may desire a 
different settlement for the sake of its own 
exterior influence or mastery. 

3. The consent of all nations to be governed 
in their conduct toward each other by 
the same principles of honor and of respect 
for the common law of civilized society 
that govern the individual citizens of all 
modern States in their relations with one 

(136) 



another; to the end that all promises and 
covenants may be sacredly observed, no 
private plots or conspiracies hatched, no 
selfish injuries wrought with impunity, 
and a mutual trust established upon the 
handsome foundation of a mutual respect 
for right. 

4. The establishment of an organization of 
peace which shall make it certain that the 
combined power of free nations will check 
every invasion of right and serve to make 
peace and justice the more secure by afford- 
ing a definite tribunal of opinion to which 
all must submit and by which every interna- 
tional readjustment that can not be ami- 
cably agreed upon by the peoples directly 
concerned shall be sanctioned." 

IV. Recent statement, September 27, 1918, of war aims: 

1. " Shall the military power of any nation 
or group of nations be suffered to deter- 
mine the fortunes of peoples over whom 
they have no right to rule except the right 
of force?" 

2. "Shall strong nations be free to wrong 
weak nations and make them subject to 
their purpose and interest?" 

3. "Shall peoples be ruled and dominated, 
even in their own internal affairs, by ar- 
bitrary and irresponsible force, or by their 
own will and choice?" 

4. "Shall there be a common standard of 
right and privilege for all nations, or 
shall the strong do as they will and the 
weak suffer without redress?" 

5. "Shall the assertion of right be haphazard 
and by casual alliance, or shall there be 
a common concert to oblige the observance 
of common rights?" 

"No man, no group of men, chose these to be 
the issues of the struggle. They are the 
(137) 



issues of it;, and they must be settled — by 
no arrangement or compromise or ad- 
justment of interests, but definitely and 
once for all and with a full and unequivocal 
acceptance of the principle that the in- 
terest of the weakest is as sacred as the 
interest of the strongest." 

''This is what we mean when we speak of a 
permanent peace, if we speak sincerely, in- 
telligently, and with a real knowledge and 
comprehension of the matter we deal with. ' ' 

"We are all agreed that there can be no peace 
obtained by any kind of bargain or com- 
promise with the governments of the Cen- 
tral Empires, because we have dealt with 
them already and have seen them deal 
with other governments that were parties 
to this struggle at Brest-Litovsk and 
Bucharest. They have convinced us that 
they are without honor and do not intend 
justice. They observe no covenant, accept 
no principle but force and their interest. 
We can not "come to terms" with them. 
They have made it impossible. The Ger- 
man people must by this time be fully 
aware that we cannot accept the word of 
those who forced this war upon us. We 
do not think the same thoughts or speak 
the same language of agreement." 

(b) General statement of terms of peace. (Sept. 27, 1918) . 
"These, then, are some of the particulars and 
I state them with greater confidence because 
I can state them authoritatively as repre- 
senting this government's interpretation of 
its own duty with regard to peace:" 
1. "The impartial justice meted out must 
involve no discrimination between those 
to whom we wish to be just and those 
to whom we do not wish to be just. It 
must be a justice that plays no favorites 
(138) 



and knows no standards but equal rights 
of the several people concerned." 

2. "No special or separate interests of any 
single nation or any group of nations can 
be made the basis of any part of the set- 
tlement which is not consistent with the 
interests of all." 

3. "There can be no leagues or alliances or 
special covenants and understandings with- 
in the family of nations." 

4. "And, more specifically, there can be no 
special, selfish economic combinations with- 
in the league and no employment of any 
form of economic boycott or exclusion 
except as the power of economic penalty 
by exclusion from the markets of the 
world may be vested in the league of 
nations itself as a means of discipline and 
control. ' ' 

5. "All international agreements and treaties 
of every kind must be made known in their 
entirety to the rest of the world. Special 
alliances and economic rivalries and hos- 
tilities have been a prolific source in the 
modern world of the plans and passions 
that produce war. It would be an insin- 
cere, as well as an insecure, peace that did 
not exclude them in definite and binding 

terms. 
' Peace drives' can be effectively neutralized 
and silenced only by showing that every 
victory of the nations associated against 
Germany brings the nations nearer the 
sort of peace which will bring security and 
reassurance to all people and make the 
return of another such struggle of pitiless 
force and bloodshed forever impossible, and 
that nothing else can. Germany is con- 
stantly intimating the 'terms' she will ac- 
cept and always finds that the world does 
(139) 



not want terms. It wishes the final triumph 
of justice and fair dealing." 



APPENDIX B. 

Wat Aims and Peace Terms as Stated by Allied States- 
men and Prime Minister Lloyd George. 

I. As found in "Reply of the Allies to the President 
of the United States" (January 10, 1917). 

' ' The Allies ' war aims are well known ; 

they have been repeatedly defined by the heads of 
their various Governments. These war aims will 
only be set forth in detail, with all the compensa- 
tions and equitable indemnities for harm suffered, 
at the moment of negotiation. But the civilized 
world knows that they imply, necessarily and first 
of all, the restoration of Belgium, Serbia and 
Montenegro, with the compensations due to them; 
the evacuation of the invaded territory in France, 
in Russia, in Rumania, and just reparation; the 
reorganization of Europe, guaranteed by a stable 
regime and based at once on respect for nationali- 
ties and on the right to full security and liberty 
of economic development possessed by all peoples, 
small and great, and at the same time upon ter- 
ritorial conventions and international settlements 
such as to guarantee land and sea frontiers against 
unjustified attacks; the restitution of provinces 
formerly torn from the Allies by force or against 
the wish of their inhabitants; the liberation of the 
Italians, as also of the Slavs, Rumanes, and Czecho- 
slovaks from foreign domination; the setting free 
of the population subject to the bloody tyranny 
of the Turks ; and the turning out of Europe of the 
Ottoman Empire as decidedly foreign to Western 
civilization. ' ' 

II. Prime minister Lloyd George's declaration of "War 
Aims. (January 5, 1918). 



(140) 



1. "Complete restoration, political, territorial, 
and economic, of the independence of 
Belgium and such reparation as can be 
made for the devastation of its towns and 
provinces." 

2. "The restoration of Serbia, Montenegro, 
and the occupied parts of France, Italy and 
Rumania. The complete withdrawal of the 
alien army and the reparation for injustice 
done is a fundamental condition of perma- 
nent peace." 

3. "We mean to stand by the French democ- 
racy to the death in the demand they make 
for a reconsideration of the great wrong of 
1871, when, without any regard for the 
wishes of the population, two French prov- 
inces were torn from the side of France 
and incorporated in the German Empire." 

4. "An independent Poland, comprising those 
genuinely Polish elements who desire to 
form part of it, is an urgent necessity for 
the stability of Western Europe." 

5. "Unless genuine self-government on two 
democratic principles is granted to those 
Austro-Hungarian nationalities who have 
long desired it, it is impossible to hope for 
the removal of those causes of unrest in 
that part of Europe which have so long 
threatened its general peace." 

6. "The satisfaction of the legitimate claims 
of the Italians for union with those of their 
own race and tongue. ' ' 

7. "That justice be done to men of Rumanian 
blood and speech in their legitimate aspi- 
rations." 

8. "We do not challenge the maintenance of 
the Turkish Empire in the home lands of 
of the Turkish race with its capital at 
Constantinople — the passage between the 
Mediterranean and the Black Sea beins 

(141) b 



internationalized and neutralized — Arabia, 
Armenia, Mesopotamia, Syria, and Palestine 
are in our judgment entitled to a rec- 
ognition of their separate national con- 
ditions. " 

9. "With regard to the German colonies, I 
have repeatedly declared that they are held 
at the disposal of a Conference whose 
decision must have primary regard to the 
wishes and interests of the native inhabi- 
tants of such colonies." 

10. "Finally, there must be reparation for in- 
juries done in violation of international 
law." 

III. Basis of Lasting Peace. Prime Minister Lloyd 
George (Jan. 5, 1918). 

"We are confident that a great attempt must 
be made to establish by some international 
organization an alternative to war as a 
means of settling international disputes." 

"If, then, we are asked what we are fighting 
for, we reply, as we have often replied, — 
We are fighting for a just and a lasting 
peace — and we believe that before perma- 
nent peace can be hoped for three con- 
ditions must be fulfilled." 

'•'First, the sanctity of treaties must be re- 
established; secondly, a territorial settle- 
ment must be secured based on the right* of 
self-determination or the consent of the 
government; and, lastly, we must seek by 
the creation of some international crgani- , 
zation to limit the burden of armaments 
and diminish the probability of war 

"On these conditions the British Empire would 
welcome peace, to secure those conditions 
its peoples are prepared to make even 
greater sacrifices than those they have yet 
endured." 

(142) 



i r: i Mn 



IMPORTANT CORRECTIONS 

PAGE 98 line 15 read < <n u * ** <delimi nation." 

PAGE q« \- ™ d manuel" for -Manuel." 

PAGE 104. une 1, read "of" for "or " 
PAGE 113, line 36, read "tral" for "tary » 

'is 12 z 2 st££-^? M >" * *<*.* 

page h, Une 31> read ,. governed „ f ; r ,. govcrmi]ent „ 



! 



